The Decentralized Accountability Question — Comments
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- jordynyian: I. Introduction Universal criminal jurisdiction allows any nation to prosecute serious international crimes. Although universal criminal jurisdiction exists under the current state of international criminal law, its decentralized nature has proven to be a weakness. This current lack of international cooperation can be resolved through the development of transgovernmental networks. However, implementation of successful transgovernmental networks is... (more)
- Alexandra Speed: Regional Organizations as Partners in Complementarity: An Exploration of the AU, ASEAN, & Arab League of States’ Roles in Implementing Complementarity I. Introduction Regional organizations like the African Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and the Arab League of States have the opportunity to assist the international community by implementing the principle of complementarity. Although, there... (more)
- Regina Campbell: How TikTok Can Save the World—Regional Organizations’ Role in Joining Social Movements to Ensure Compliance With International Law In this comment, I argue that the role of regional organizations in Africa can aid in implementing the principle of complementarity by aligning themselves with social movements that create a culture of domestic prosecution and pressure States to exercise jurisdiction over mass atrocities. In Part I, I define complementarity... (more)
- Zishan Yu: Promotion of Universal Jurisdiction: With Experts One-to-One Introduction This comment discusses how to promote universal jurisdiction. By arguing for the importance of universal jurisdiction and comparing different situations faced by countries, this comment discusses problems we face when introducing universal jurisdiction to the world. In China, for example, an important principle in criminal law is “No crime without law making it so; no... (more)
- mahak jain: The comment attempts to reimagine the frameworks of the principle of complementarity under the Rome Statute in correlation with the sub-Saharan African context. The comment advances the debate over the role of the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR) with the incoming of the amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the ACJHR titled as the Malabo Protocol.1 I aim to shed... (more)
- SydneyRobles: I. Introduction International law increasingly recognizes that States have a moral and legal duty to hold perpetrators of grave international crimes accountable.1 To fulfill this duty, a number of States have adopted universal jurisdiction laws empowering national courts to assert jurisdiction over select crimes based solely on their heinous nature, without any connection to the State.2 This Comment conducts a comparative analysis of German,... (more)
- hglembo: Using Development Banks to Implement Complementarity I. Introduction The principle of complementarity, specifically positive complementarity focuses on providing collaborative assistance from the International Criminal Court (ICC). While a core goal of the Rome Statute is for the ICC to work complementary to national criminal jurisdictions, this is not always successfully implemented.... (more)
- jordynyian: I. Introduction Under the principle of complementarity, the International Criminal Court (ICC or the Court) is intended to function solely as a court of last resort when courts of the national jurisdiction where crimes occurred are unable to genuinely investigate and prosecute these crimes. As part of their genuine efforts, national jurisdictions must also sufficiently address victims’ rights. However, under the current state of... (more)
- Dalia: I. Introduction The principle of universal jurisdiction provides for a state’s jurisdiction over crimes against international law even when the crime did not occur on that state’s territory, and neither the victim nor perpetrator is a national of that state (thus ruling out the exercise of jurisdiction through the principles of nationality, passive personality, and territoriality).1 This, thus, allows national courts in third countries... (more)
- aalmaguer: How Regional Organizations Can Support Complementarity: The Asian Development Bank and Judicial Reform Introduction The principle of complementarity requires institutional capacity at the national level to prosecute the crimes set forth by Article 5 of the Rome Statute (Article 5 Crimes). The International Criminal Court (ICC) was designed to be a court of last resort, not the only court. Of... (more)
- Dalia: I. Introduction The principle of complementarity aims at granting jurisdiction to a subsidiary body when the main body fails to exercise its primacy jurisdiction.1 In the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), this would mean interfering only when the national jurisdiction was unwilling or unable to prosecute pursuant to Article 17 of the Rome Statute.2 One of the major issues that the... (more)
- arvind2024: Universal Jurisdiction and Horizontal Complementarity I. The Problem with Universal Jurisdiction As the prompt for this question notes, states are becoming increasingly comfortable trying cases under universal jurisdiction. Yet, universal jurisdiction remains a frequently debated issue because its exercise involves infringing traditional state sovereignty.1 When a state invokes universal jurisdiction, it may exercise jurisdiction... (more)
- Regina Campbell: Victim Over Verdict—How Exercising Universal Jurisdiction Means Promoting the Interests of Victims of International Atrocities In this comment, I argue that in order to exercising universal jurisdiction, the International Criminal Court’s (ICC) Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) should prioritize the interests and desires of the victims of international atrocities. In Part I, I explain why the OTP should... (more)
- SydneyRobles: I. Introduction The principle of complementarity is a cornerstone of the Rome Statute and the International Criminal Court (ICC). Under this design, the ICC will only intervene in “exceptional” circumstances where states fail to investigate and prosecute international crimes.1 Since its inception, the ICC has opened investigations in nine African States.2 A number of... (more)
- DevinYaeger: How Can the International Criminal Court Help National Courts Implement Universal Jurisdiction: Potential Applications and Pitfalls Arising from the Article 93 Cooperation I. Introduction In recent years, there has been renewed interest in countries exercising universal jurisdiction, i.e., the prosecution of foreign nationals for serious crimes unrelated to the prosecuting nation other than their offensiveness or threat to... (more)
- james2024: Regional Complementarity: Mutually Beneficial Collaboration between Regional Courts and the ICC I. Introduction The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a unique forum for international justice, as the only international court charged with prosecuting individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.1 Despite its unique place in international justice, the Court has long faced... (more)
- Zishan Yu: A Win-Win Situation: Cooperation Between the International Criminal Court and Regional Organizations I. Introduction This comment addresses the challenges that the International Criminal Court (ICC) faces in today’s rapidly changing world. Some people are disappointed that only a few perpetrators have been tried by the ICC, and that the vast majority have so far escaped consequences for their crimes. Some countries... (more)
- mahak jain: The success of the International Criminal Court (ICC) revolves around its jurisdictional structure and the complementarity component of its legal system and it may very well be quantifiable by how few situations the Court will have to prosecute.1 This is not because of the quixotic belief that the ICC can serve as a better court of law and custodian of world peace and justice, but because of its default... (more)
- hglembo: ICC as a Partner for States Trying Universal Jurisdiction Cases I. Introduction As a greater number of states try universal jurisdiction-based cases, it is apparent that the International Criminal Court (ICC) should make itself a better partner for these states. Universal jurisdiction allows states to try crimes, similar to those outlined in the Rome Statute,1 no matter where the crime occurred or... (more)
- Alexandra Speed: Universal Jurisdiction’s Universal Issues: Solutions for the States by the ICC I. Introduction Universal jurisdiction is an element of international law that is frequently exercised by many countries across the world. It is most generally exercised by states that have an interest in seeing perpetrators of international crimes brought to justice. It has recently been exercised by Germany prosecuting Syrian officials and... (more)
- aalmaguer: Helping States Pursue Investigations Under Universal Jurisdiction: Proposed Role for the International Criminal Court and Interpol Introduction At a fundamental level, a state needs three things to pursue a criminal investigation through universal jurisdiction: existing national laws or legislation authorizing the exercise of universal jurisdiction over the specific crime, political will to apply those laws and pursue... (more)
- arvind2024: Doing Away with the ICC’s Unitary Structure The principle of complementarity is a “cornerstone” of the Rome Statute.1 It is more than a jurisdictional rule on concurrent claims by domestic courts and the International Criminal Court (ICC) as articulated in Article 17: it “has begun to shape the normative structure of peace-making.”2 In its 2006 Report on Strategy, the Office... (more)
- james2024: Expanding the Landscape of International Justice: Obstacles to Universal Jurisdiction and the Potential Role of the ICC I. Introduction Since its inception in 1998, the International Criminal Court (ICC) has aimed to bring justice to the gravest international crimes in the world. The Court is the first and only permanent international criminal court with the jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute individuals for genocide... (more)
Comment on the Decentralized Accountability Question: “How, and to what extent, should the ICC’s Office of the Prosecutor engage with national, regional, or other authorities or organizations to support accountability for those accused of grave crimes?”
Expanding the Landscape of International Justice: Obstacles to Universal Jurisdiction and the Potential Role of the ICC
I. Introduction
Since its inception in 1998, the International Criminal Court (ICC) has aimed to bring justice to the gravest international crimes in the world. The Court is the first and only permanent international criminal court with the jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.1 Despite its unique and valuable ambition, the ICC has faced ample criticism for being unable to sufficiently realize expectations.
The Court has been widely accused of bias, due to its emphasis on predominantly Western ideals of justice and disproportionate prosecutions of situations in African countries.2 The ICC has also been criticized for inefficiency, due to long case proceedings, difficulty implementing arrests, and its meager record of just ten convictions in over twenty years.3 Others have disparaged the ICC for unduly imposing on state sovereignty.4 The Court faces many barriers in carrying out successful prosecutions but should continue to reevaluate its best practices and attempt to maintain legitimacy as a unique institution in the space of international criminal justice.
Over time, the landscape of international justice has seen the development of new forums for justice to fight against grave human rights violations. As the ICC faces a large, complex caseload, it may benefit from narrowing its focus to more thorough yet limited investigations. In turn, other avenues of justice could fill the gaps in preventing global impunity, particularly in the form of universal jurisdiction. In recent years, states have increasingly asserted and exercised universal jurisdiction in an effort to secure justice against the most heinous international crimes.5 Universal jurisdiction is the ability and obligation of domestic judicial systems to investigate and prosecute grave international crimes (such as war crimes, crimes against humanity, torture, and genocide), even if they were not committed on the state’s territory and did not involve one of its nationals.6
While it presents a new potential avenue for international justice, universal jurisdiction faces barriers and criticisms of its own. Universal jurisdiction is controversial and has sparked widespread criticism for its sovereignty violations, political bias, and infringement on immunities.7 States have also struggled to effectively carry out universal jurisdiction cases as there are ample practical obstacles to prosecuting crimes which occurred in another country, such as accessing crime scenes and locating witnesses.8
Nonetheless, as the ICC struggles to adequately combat international crimes, universal jurisdiction is a viable alternative for national authorities to take on some of the burden in prosecuting perpetrators of grievous human rights abuses. Further, considering the experience and institutional capacity of the ICC, the Court has the ability to provide valuable help and resources to national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction, to the benefit of both parties.
In this comment, I will discuss the obstacles that arise for national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction and how the ICC can help address them. In Part II, I provide a brief background on the legal basis for universal jurisdiction, the ICC, and the Rome Statute. In Part III, I highlight the primary challenges facing national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction, with an emphasis on those challenges which the ICC may be able to address. In Part IV, I outline the potential role for the ICC in assisting national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction to overcome these challenges. I conclude that the most realistic, impactful areas of assistance will likely be training and evidence sharing. While there are many challenges, increased cooperation between the ICC and national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction would greatly benefit the growing landscape of international justice.
II. Background: Universal Jurisdiction and the ICC
While universal jurisdiction is politically controversial, particularly for its infringement on state sovereignty, the concept is rooted in international law. It was first codified in the 1949 Geneva Conventions in relation to war crimes, which was ratified by 194 states.9 It’s also codified and obligatory in the 1973 Convention against Apartheid, the 1984 Convention against Torture, and the 2006 Convention against Enforced Disappearance.10 Further, universal jurisdiction is generally considered acceptable under international customary law for particularly heinous crimes, such as genocide and crimes against humanity.11
The ICC attempts to address many of the same grievous crimes as universal jurisdiction. The Rome Statute grants the ICC jurisdiction over the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.12 However, the Court’s jurisdiction is limited to the territories of states which are a Party to its Statute (or states which accept jurisdiction), or where the matter was referred by the United Nations Security Council.13 Moreover, only 123 countries are States Parties to the Rome Statute.14 Universal jurisdiction presents an opportunity for national authorities to take international justice into their hands and alleviate some of the caseload for the ICC, as well as reach territories that the ICC would not normally be able to pursue under its limited jurisdiction. The ICC has the potential to help these national authorities as it has more experience in pursuing grave human rights crimes and can lend valuable resources and expertise.
III. Obstacles in Exercising Universal Jurisdiction
In assessing how the ICC may assist states exercising universal jurisdiction, I first examine the primary obstacles facing these states. While there are many obstacles facing national authorities, I will primarily focus on those which the ICC could potentially assist with.
A. Legal Obstacles
There are numerous legal challenges to asserting and carrying out prosecutions using universal jurisdiction. Many states lack adequate legislation to assert universal jurisdiction. While almost two-thirds of all states have legislation permitting universal jurisdiction over certain grave international crimes, such as war crimes, few have jurisdiction over all, and many lack adequate specified punishments.15 Additional important principles, such as the criminal responsibility of commanders and superiors are often absent from legislation.16 Even states with adequate legislation are often hindered by foreign amnesties and other measures of impunity, particularly immunities for heads of state and government officials.17 These impunities are inconsistent with the Rome Statute’s emphasis on preventing impunity regardless of official capacity.18
Domestic justice systems also struggle to exercise universal jurisdiction because there is a lack of mutual legal assistance in the international justice system. States where the crime occurred have no obligation to assist the forum state with an investigation, allow entry into crime scenes, provide evidence, or extradite suspects.19 Additionally, collaboration is not always possible when perpetrators are part of state governments or militaries due to conflicts of interest in carrying out fair investigations. There are few international treaties regarding mutual legal assistance and they have limited scope with broad grounds of refusal, such as double criminality requirements and statutes of limitation.20 Additionally, these grounds of refusal are typically evaluated by political officials rather than courts, creating questionable bias, particularly in the absence of international monitoring.21
B. Political Obstacles
National authorities also face political obstacles in exercising universal jurisdiction. Primarily, states often lack the political will to implement universal jurisdiction. International crimes committed abroad are typically not at the highest priority for national police, prosecutors, or political officials. The participation of political officials in judicial decision-making also often leads to political interference with exercising universal jurisdiction.22 In many countries, political officials must approve initiation of criminal investigation or prosecutions based on universal jurisdiction and decisions on whether to extradite or cooperate.23 This brings clear issues of bias and undermines the legitimacy and success of universal jurisdiction. The continued use of military courts for crimes under international law also creates concern about potential political interference.24
C. Practical Obstacles
States exercising universal jurisdiction also face major evidentiary challenges, as they are investigating crimes which did not occur within their own territory. Access to crime scenes is particularly difficult to achieve, especially with countries that are unwilling to cooperate or have political interference.25 Forensic evidence is lacking in many major international crimes, especially with the long delays that happen throughout the investigation and prosecution, and authorities are forced to over rely on witness testimony.26 Geographical distance also makes gathering this evidence or finding witnesses financially cumbersome.27 It’s particularly difficult when there are restrictions on exporting certain items or limited access to crime scenes such as grave sites.28 Because of these evidentiary issues, there is the potential for a power imbalance between the prosecution and defense in these cases.
Witness testimony presents its own challenges, as it’s difficult to locate victims and witnesses, particularly for stigmatized crimes or those witnesses who have a fear of reprisal. Gaining the trust of witnesses and ensuring their safety and security in a trial in another country is particularly challenging.29 Once witnesses can be included, there is still a potential issue of memory loss given the long delays in universal jurisdiction proceedings and the chance of retraumatization.30 Witnesses may also be more intimidated in unfamiliar countries with court settings they are not typically accustomed to.31
Additionally, national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction are hindered by intercultural differences. Prosecutors and judges have a limited understanding of the cultural, social, and political contexts of the states where the crimes were committed, which makes it difficult to evaluate evidence and witnesses appropriately.32 States have differing understandings of justice, from appropriate forms of punishment to varying court procedures, and this disparity becomes apparent in exercising universal jurisdiction. These distinct contexts can hinder the achievement of justice in a form that is meaningful to the victims who actually suffered the crimes.
Finally, domestic justice systems face a major obstacle in that national authorities may have inadequate knowledge of the international criminal justice system. Many national authorities are unfamiliar with their own universal jurisdiction provisions, relevant international law, and the specialized knowledge and skills that are required for these particular types of crimes.33 In some countries, it may be difficult to obtain access to information on extradition or mutual legal assistance treaties, and this may lead prosecutors to not pursue universal jurisdiction.34 National authorities also often lack the specialized investigation and prosecution units that could lend expertise to crimes under universal jurisdiction.35 International law requires unique practical skills, such as evidence gathering abroad, interviewing victims of sexual violence, preserving confidentiality and witness protection, and dealing with intercultural differences.36 These types of skills are critical to successful prosecutions under universal jurisdiction and many countries lack the specialized knowledge or dedicated units to properly facilitate them.
IV. Potential Role for the ICC
The ICC is the first permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. Because it is the first and only court of its kind, the ICC possesses valuable institutional knowledge that can aid in international justice. The infrastructure of the ICC could be a valuable asset in filling the gap in specialized knowledge that many domestic justice systems face in terms of universal jurisdiction. The Court specializes in the very crimes that universal jurisdiction typically prosecutes, and the ICC could help close this knowledge gap in a variety of ways.
First, the ICC could potentially conduct training for national authorities seeking more expertise in grave international crimes. This could include training for investigators, prosecutors, and law enforcement. The ICC conducts virtual events on topics such as “witness protection and support” and could likely expand this method to a more robust program which is focused on the unique complications of universal jurisdiction.37 Training and sharing knowledge is increasingly easier to facilitate as institutions embrace remote options following the pandemic.38 Different organizations in the international justice system have embraced this approach, as seen in joint training across the European Judicial Training Network and training sessions from experts at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia.39 The ICC itself has conducted training initiatives similar to this.40
The ICC could also help national authorities to establish specialized units within police and prosecution offices for investigating international crimes such as war crimes and crimes against humanity.41 The ICC could contribute training, expertise, and resources for best practices to these units. These kinds of units have been largely successful in Australia, Canada, Ethiopia, and the United Kingdom.42 This could help address many of the practical barriers regarding a lack of specialized knowledge in international crimes.
The ICC could also contribute knowledge by providing prosecutorial policies, strategies and guidelines. For example, the ICC has extensive experience in the protection of witnesses and faces the same issues of retraumatization, confidentiality, and intercultural differences that are seen in universal jurisdiction.43 The Court’s familiarity with these issues could help states trying to build these new skills. Although the ICC may not be the ultimate success in many of these challenging areas, simply sharing resources and network connections can be a valuable resource for national authorities. Sharing knowledge and connecting experts within the international justice field could help advance both the ICC and national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction. The Court could even help create a global resource of information regarding universal jurisdictions and the crimes it involves, with guidelines for best practices and policies.44
The ICC network is also useful for promoting collaboration. The Court could use its relationships with the Assembly of States Parties to encourage or propose guidelines on practical steps to make the practice of universal jurisdiction more feasible for national authorities. This could come in the form of treaties regarding mutual legal assistance in the case of universal jurisdiction, treaties on extradition and arrest procedures for these crimes, or even a form of international monitoring for this process.45 As some of the inadequate universal jurisdiction legislation conflicts with the Rome Statute, collaboration with the ICC could lead to improved legislation which is more reflective of the standards within the Rome Statute. For example, national authorities could be encouraged to remove immunities for heads of state or government officials.46
Advocacy from the ICC can also help spur action from national authorities in exercising universal jurisdiction. This occurred in 2003, when the ICC Prosecutor encouraged states to investigate criminal business and inspired the Netherlands’ investigation of Guus Kouwenhoven.47 In this way, ICC encouragement and support could help divide labor across jurisdictions to prosecute human rights violations abroad. The ICC and national jurisdictions could also collaborate with NGOs to increase advocacy efforts, particularly because NGOs have extensive knowledge of different cultural contexts where crimes may be committed.48
Finally, the ICC could assist with the provision of evidence to national authorities asserting universal jurisdiction. The ICC may conduct preliminary investigations into situations which overlap with universal jurisdiction prosecutions in other states and could provide recommendations or evidence. Provision of evidence may likely be the most helpful assistance the ICC can provide, as national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction face substantial barriers in being unable to access crime scenes and lacking forensic evidence.
Article 93 of the Rome Statute allows the Court to cooperate with and provide assistance to a State Party conducting an investigation or trial for:
This form of assistance includes, inter alia, the transmission of statements, documents, other types of evidence, and the questioning of witnesses.50 This leaves open the possibility of widespread assistance in providing evidence or other resources for a State Party asserting universal jurisdiction. Additionally, the Statute allows for assistance to be granted to a State which is not a State Party.51 This provides the possibility for ample evidentiary assistance to states asserting universal jurisdiction and opens the possibilities for more widespread pursuit of international justice.
Naturally there are also barriers for the ICC in providing this type of assistance. The Rome Statute places great importance on the confidentiality of witnesses.52 Sharing evidence with other jurisdictions could present difficult issues of confidentiality and witness security. Additionally, under Article 93, if the evidence was obtained with the assistance of a State, the transmission of evidence requires the consent of that state.53 This may present issues where there is political interference or conflicts of interest. However, given the Court’s experience in preserving the confidentiality of witnesses, this challenge is not unduly burdensome. The ICC is familiar with preserving the security and confidentiality of evidence and is likely capable of ensuring national authorities receive evidence have independent, trustworthy judiciaries.54
V. Conclusion
The ICC has valuable expertise, knowledge, and resources to offer national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction. The most beneficial forms of assistance would likely be the provision of evidence and the sharing of expertise through training. While helping to negotiate or develop new treaties establishing mutual legal assistance would be advantageous, this is less likely given the ever-present concerns about state sovereignty.
The question remains whether any type of assistance would be feasible for the ICC, which is already struggling with its own prosecutions. In fact, given the accusations of bias and inefficiency against the Court, some may argue that the ICC should not be teaching other jurisdictions how to prosecute. However, the benefits of potentially delegating some prosecutions to national authorities would alleviate part of the burden on the ICC and redistribute potential for justice to more diverse forums. Different national authorities prosecuting international crimes could help even out the landscape of international justice and prevent Western bias. This is arguably the best bet for a more successful ICC and a more powerful international justice system more broadly, as it divides labor in a more effective way.55
Despite the challenges, cooperation between the ICC and national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction has the potential to greatly benefit the growing landscape of international justice and provide new avenues to fight against impunity.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
About the Court, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
To What Extent has the ICC Under-Represented Non-Western Laws, Principles, Rules, Procedures, Practices, or Traditions in its Legal Structure and System?, ICC Forum (Jul. 25, 2022), available online; Is the International Criminal Court Targeting Africa Inappropriately?, ICC Forum (Mar. 17, 2013), available online. ↩
About the Court, supra note 1; What More Can be Done to Secure Arrests?, ICC Forum (Feb. 13, 2014), available online. ↩
Kiran Mohandas Mehon, Asia and the ICC: 20 Years Later, The Diplomat (Oct. 13, 2018), available online. ↩
Trial International, Universal Jurisdiction Annual Review 2022 (Apr. 4, 2022), available online. ↩
Human Rights Watch, Facts on Universal Jurisdiction (Oct. 19, 2009), available online. ↩
Id.; Henry A. Kissinger, The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction, Foreign Aff. (Jul. 2001), paywall, archived. ↩
Trial International, Universal Jurisdiction Annual Review 2019 (Mar. 1, 2019), available online. ↩
Facts on Universal Jurisdiction, supra note 6. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 5, available online. ↩
Id. Art. 12; Id. Art. 13. ↩
The States Parties to the Rome Statute, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Christopher Keith Hall, Amnesty Int’l, Universal Jurisdiction: The Challenges for Police and Prosecuting Authorities 4 (Jun. 13, 2007), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 5. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 12, at Art. 27. ↩
Howard Varney & Katarzyna Zduńczyk, ICTJ, Advancing Global Accountability: The Role of Universal Jurisdiction in Prosecuting International Crimes (Dec. 2020) [hereinafter Global Accountability], available online. ↩
Hall, supra note 15, at 11. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 19. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Universal Jurisdiction Annual Review 2019, supra note 8, at 9. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Hall, supra note 15, at 16. ↩
Universal Jurisdiction Annual Review 2019, supra note 8, at 9. ↩
Global Accountability, supra note 18. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 25. ↩
Hall, supra note 15, at 18. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
20th Anniversary of Entry into Force of the Rome Statute, ASP, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Trial International, Universal Jurisdiction Annual Review 2021 (Apr. 12, 2021), available online. ↩
European Judicial Training Network, EJTN-GNS Joint Training on the Investigation and Prosecution of Core International Crimes (Sep. 2022), available online; Press Release, ICTY, President Pocar Participates in Expert Meeting on Inter-State Judicial Cooperation in War Crimes Proceedings (Jun. 13, 2007), available online. ↩
Press Release, Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, Office of the Prosecutor Participates in Training Initiative in Uganda: Collaboration is Key to Closing the Impunity Gap (Mar. 13, 2018), available online. ↩
Hall, supra note 15, at 18. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Global Accountability, supra note 18. ↩
Hall, supra note 15. ↩
Id. ↩
William W. Burke-White, Proactive Complementarity: The International Criminal Court and National Courts in the Rome System of Justice, 49 Harv. Int’l L.J. 53 (2008), available online. ↩
Global Accountability, supra note 18. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 12, at Art. 93. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. Art. 68. ↩
Id. Art. 93. ↩
Burke-White, supra note 47. ↩
Id. ↩
Doing Away with the ICC’s Unitary Structure
The principle of complementarity is a “cornerstone” of the Rome Statute.1 It is more than a jurisdictional rule on concurrent claims by domestic courts and the International Criminal Court (ICC) as articulated in Article 17: it “has begun to shape the normative structure of peace-making.”2 In its 2006 Report on Strategy, the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) explained its expansive view of complementarity to include the “creat[ion of] an interdependent, mutually reinforcing international system of justice” that incorporates “national and international networks” and that “participates in a system of international cooperation.”3 Yet, the nearly exclusive focus of the OTP on situations in Africa—and the resultant backlash in the form of the African Union’s (AU) “ICC Withdrawal Strategy” in 2017—suggests a failure in the ICC’s mission of complementarity. Though tensions with the AU have somewhat eased, the ICC remains far from “participat[ing] in a system of international cooperation,” and the Africa Question remains as relevant today as it was in 2017: Every situation that has resulted in an indictment has been in Africa; the first investigation outside of Africa took place as late as 2016.
The AU’s threatened withdrawal was a breakdown in the dialectic that the principle of complementarity demands between member states and the Court, and is perhaps also emblematic of a systemic disconnect between the ICC and the people the Court is supposed to serve: victims of mass atrocities. Anecdotal evidence suggests many victims are not even aware of the existence of the ICC in the Netherlands, so far removed from the African bush.4
In this comment, I explore a radical solution to the disconnect between the ICC and its member states and victims. Proposed by a few scholars,5 this solution reimagines the ICC, not as the highly centralized and unitary organization that it is in The Hague, but as a decentralized and federated network of truly regional courts that unite the Rome Statute’s twin goals of global justice and complementarity. Specifically, the proposal suggests the creation of several ICC regional circuit chambers, each responsible for crimes committed within their circuit, subject to the jurisdiction of the court as detailed in the Rome Statute. First, I outline the circuit-structure of this new ICC; second, I examine how the circuit-structure would benefit the ICC’s mission of complementarity, with special reference to the Uganda situation and in response to the Africa Question; third, I detail the not-insubstantial hurdles towards the realization of the circuit-structure; and finally, I address potential criticisms of this novel proposal.
I. Structuring the ICC Regional Circuit Chambers
The proposed circuit structure is inspired by the U.S. federal court system’s own circuit/district structure.6 Per Article 39(2) of the Rome Statute, which provides that the Court’s judicial functions must be carried out by Chambers, nothing precludes:
At least in theory, the Rome Statute envisages the possibility of breaking down the Court’s work.
Each regional circuit chamber would have jurisdiction over crimes committed in the territory of the States Parties within to the geographic boundaries of the circuit. The circuits could correspond to continents, but given that some continents have few signatories (e.g., Asia), and others have many (e.g., South America, Africa, etc.), smaller circuits may be preferred. The cost associated with the functioning of a greater number of circuits would have to be balanced against the benefits associated with smaller but more representative circuits. Each regional circuit chamber would follow the current institutional structure, i.e., it would comprise a Pre-Trial Chamber, a Trial Chamber, an Appeal Chamber, and an OTP.8 The seat of each circuit chamber would be in the territory of a contracting party and within the territorial jurisdiction of that circuit chamber. An effort should be made to staff the most important positions within each circuit, such as the Prosecutor and judges, with nationals of the States Parties within the circuit, though this may not always be possible.9 Article 36 of the Rome Statute, which mandates a bench of eighteen judges, presents an issue, since this number would prove inadequate for the circuit structure. However, Article 36(2) lays out the process for expanding the number of judges via simplified amendment to the Rome Statute, requiring a two-thirds majority in the Assembly of States Party (ASP).10
Each regional circuit’s Prosecutor would have the rank of a Deputy Prosecutor. Since the Rome Statute does not specify the number of Deputy Prosecutors, there would be no need for an amendment to accommodate an increase in their number (currently, there are two).11 And since, Deputy Prosecutors are “entitled to carry out any of the acts required of the Prosecutor under this Statute”12 and “on a full-time basis,”13 no amendment is required to appropriately empower the Deputy Prosecutors in each circuit. The powers and functions of each Pre-Trial regional circuit chamber, each Trial regional circuit chamber and each Appeal regional circuit chamber will remain the same. The ICC’s current structure, i.e., the bench of all the judges, might serve as a final court of appeals. It could resolve certain circuit splits on issues fundamental to the Rome Statute, rule on issues of concurrent jurisdiction among the regional circuit chambers or other procedural matters, etc.
Many major amendments, not mentioned above, would naturally have to made to set up these regional circuit chambers. These amendments would be based on Article 122, which deals with changes to the Rome Statute that are “of an exclusively institutional nature.”14 Any state party may propose the amendments, which would then have to be accepted by consensus, failing which the ASP or a Review Conference must adopt them by a two-thirds majority.15 Under Article 122(2), amendments shall automatically come into force six months after their adoption and will become binding on all States Parties, meaning that parties which disagreed must follow the wishes of the majority.16 Naturally, these dissenting parties might choose to withdraw from the Rome Statute, so consensus would be much preferable.
Of course, achieving this consensus or two-thirds majority will not be a straightforward task. African parties might be the most amenable to compromise, since the circuit structure seeks to address concerns raised during the threatened African Withdrawal. Moreover, the circuit structure goes directly to Kenya’s statement to the ASP Working Group of Amendments in 2015, that it wishes to propose an amendment “to ensure that the principle of complementarity sufficiently recognizes regional criminal judicial mechanisms,” in part by “allow[ing] judicial proceedings to take place closer to the location where the alleged crimes had been committed.”17 Kenya does not appear to have put forward an amendment to that effect, and it might be the ideal candidate to propose the circuit chambers.18
It must be noted that though this proposal would significantly alter the structure of the ICC in service of complementarity, it does not in fact, seek to amend the principle of complementarity as laid out in Article 17. The circuit structure certainly takes stock of the Prosecutor’s broader understanding of the meaning and goals of the principle, but it would still be bound to Article 17 -complementarity. Therefore, all states would be obliged to prosecute and try crimes themselves before resorting to the ICC, and the Deputy Prosecutors and Prosecutor should continue to be mindful of this obligation.
II. The Circuit Structure Benefits the Principle of Complementarity
The principle of complementarity plays an important role in protecting the diversity of domestic and regional systems of justice. It does this by giving primacy to domestic courts to prosecute crimes and allowing great leeway in how they conduct their proceedings. But when domestic courts cannot or do not prosecute, and the OTP steps in, the deference to traditional forms of justice vanishes. For instance, the intervention of the Prosecutor in the situation in Uganda was roundly criticized for providing only partial justice to victims of the Lord’s Resistance Army.19 Local community leaders and victims placed a greater emphasis on ideals of restorative, rather than punitive, justice in their communities, which the Rome Statute and most Western systems of justice, do not contemplate. As one traditional leader observed: “There is a balance in the community that cannot be found in the briefcase of the white man.”20 Another elder stated:
If [the LRA leaders] are taken to The Hague, they will be locked up with air conditioning and will live the lifestyle of Ugandan ministers. But they will have to come here and make up with the community. Let them live with the people whose ears they have chopped off. Let them see for the rest of their lives what suffering they have caused. That is punishment. In our view, ICC punishment is light. Let them morally come and confess.21
Sarah Nouwen, who conducted many interviews in Uganda in relation to the LRA insurgency, explains that:
Traditional justice did achieve some recognition in the Juba negotiations. Referring to traditional Acholi, Langi and Madi procedures, the Accountability Agreement provides that:
Traditional justice mechanisms, such as Culo Kwor, Mato Oput, Kayo Cuk, Ailuc and Tonu ci Koka and others as practiced in the communities affected by the conflict, shall be promoted, with necessary modifications, as a central part of the framework for accountability and reconciliation.23
However, it was the Special Division of the High Court, provided for by the Accountability Agreement to deal with the most serious crimes, and not traditional justice that was designated to meet ICC’s complementarity standards.24 Nevertheless, attention to traditional forms of justice in an otherwise Westernized legal context is noteworthy, and an excellent example of the complementarity that the ICC itself should, and nearly did, aspire to.
The regional circuit structure’s primary benefit is that it would efficiently facilitate this ambitious kind of complementarity. It is simply not possible for an institution to properly take account of the traditional practices, and their viability and acceptance within the community as systems of justice, while sitting in The Hague. A smaller circuit, staffed by people familiar with traditional practices and headquartered in the region, would have a much better shot at syncretizing the demands of the Rome Statute with the victims’ expectations of justice. Incorporating this degree of cultural relativism demanded by the principle of complementarity, as envisioned by the OTP, would make the ICC in Africa a truly African institution, run by and for Africans.
But, the indicia of complementarity include more than the formalistic recognition of traditional justice. The true incorporation of regional networks and modes of justice (in conformity with the Rome Statute) requires effective outreach into affected communities on the ICC’s part. Indeed, the ICC’s operation, legitimacy and public impact in general depend on how much communities affected by violence understand the Court.25 Communities that are shut out of the dialogue around the ICC may be unsupportive or unable to come forward and participate in proceedings,26 or advocate for recognition of traditional forms of justice. The ICC’s outreach programs have in the past had some effect: Successive research in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (the site of an ICC situation) conducted in 2008 and 2013 show, for example, that awareness about the existence of the ICC rose from 28% to 54% of the adult population.27 This achievement is largely attributable to the ICC’s outreach efforts, local NGOs and expanded coverage by the media.28 Yet, in 2013, just 9% of respondents in that region of the DRC described their knowledge of the ICC as a “good” or “very good.”29 The authors who conducted this research emphasized the need for “localized outreach” predicated on “defin[ing] and understand[ing] their target audience,” a thorough knowledge of “the characteristics and information and communication needs of the target groups,” and an understanding of the “cultural[] appropriate[ness]” of the outreach.30 The researchers also explained that the “results of the outreach must be measured against realistic expectations.”31 In sum, effective outreach and integration of traditional forms of justice requires a thorough understanding of the facts on the ground; it requires effective collaboration with local media, local NGOs and other local organizations, and it requires an intimate knowledge of the local cultures, expectations and practices. A regional circuit court would be better placed in this regard than the unitary ICC currently is. The principle of complementarity can only be served by the regionalization of the Court.
There are some other efficiencies that the circuit structure would afford the general functionality of the Court. A well function Court would, in turn, make the incorporation of “national and international networks”32 into the working of the Rome Statute much more palatable to other regional organizations. For instance, a decentralized circuit structure would allow for easier evidence gathering for OTP investigations and for use in judicial proceedings. Practical issues associated with getting witnesses to testify in the Netherlands, thousands of miles away from their home, would be largely resolved if they had only to travel the relatively shorter distance to the headquarters of the regional circuit. It might even be possible for the Court to travel to the witnesses or the specific territory where the crime occurred, in true circuit fashion. But, as researcher Susana SáCouto explains, the efficient gathering of evidence also requires an “ongoing communication and dialogue”33 between the Court and first responders, which are typically NGOs like the Seruka Health Center, set up by Médicins Sans Frontières in response to conflict-related sexual violence in Bujumbura, Burundi.34 This dialectic is imperative in educating first responders about the types of information most helpful to investigations and prosecutors trying ICC crimes. According to SáCouto, encouraging first responders to collaborate with the ICC “requires that the OTP identify and pursue opportunities to foster mutual respect and understanding, and build trust, with first responders,” who might otherwise be wary of working too closely with the ICC.35 Broadly, the task of establishing a strong and stable dialectic with regional organizations on the ground would greatly benefit from the regionalization of the Court itself, and would advance the broad principle of complementarity.
III. Potential Criticisms of the Proposed Circuit Structure
Doing away with the ICC’s unitary structure is undoubtedly an ambitious proposal that will not be easy to implement. In Part I, I discussed one major legislative hurdle that proponents of the circuit structure will have to overcome: securing a consensus, or at least a two-thirds supermajority, in the ASP. Amending the Rome Statute to this extent will be a costly endeavor. The negotiations themselves will likely take several years of work, even before the implementation of the circuit system around the world. But, any such proposal is not doomed to be an exercise in futility. The Rome Statute has been amended before, most notably by the addition of crimes of aggression to the substantive jurisdiction of the Court in December 2017.36 Unlike that amendment, amendments relating to the circuit structure would not modify the jurisdiction of the Court, the very heart of the Rome Statute. They would not alter the Court’s powers or the obligations of the States Parties. They would not even distort the principle of complementarity as described in Article 17, central as it was to securing the support of the original parties to the Rome Statute. Communicating the proposal as an internal reorganization, rather than as a fundamental recharacterization, of the ICC would go a long way in making the proposal more acceptable to the States Parties, especially if it is emphasized that the reorganization is in the interest of the principle of complementarity already enshrined in the Rome Statute.
Beyond its feasibility, it might also be argued that the circuit structure represents an intolerable, neo-colonialist encroachment of the ICC, an ostensibly Western institution, into the internal affairs of formerly colonized States Parties. Whereas the ICC in its current form operates in, say, Africa from a distance and is constrained by its unitary structure from interfering too intimately in the affairs of African states, bringing the Court into the territories of States Parties and the very heart of Africa, would be an imposition. I would argue, however, that far from reconstructing a colonial past, the circuit-structure actively works against it by empowering African states and their people to administer international criminal justice as they see fit. Ingrained within the current form of the Rome Statute is an element of hubris: the assumption that international justice, as it has always been envisioned and developed in the West, is applicable everywhere and to all cultures. The attitude of the victims and their communities in Uganda, as discussed above, lays waste to such a suggestion.
A circuit, because it would be a regional organization, would be better at recognizing and complementing forms of justice that the victims themselves would recognize; it is a waste of resources and a true imposition to execute justice that has no bearing on the culture framework that the victims operate in. The circuit structure can efficiently accommodate diverse modes of justice that are not compatible with each other, but are nonetheless recognizable to the people within each circuit. At the same time, the proposed circuit structure, like the current unitary structure, would continue to secure principles of international justice that the States Parties, especially those in Africa, signed up for.37 Abandoning the ICC’s unitary structure does not mean abandoning its core mission of prosecuting mass atrocities; rather, it means giving victims and communities the space and ability to see justice done in a forum and form that they recognize.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
The Prosecutor v. Joseph Kony, Vincent Otti, Okot Odhiambo and Dominic Ongwen, ICC-02/04-01/05, Decision on the admissibility of the case under article 19(1) of the Statute, ¶ 34 (Mar. 10, 2009), available online. ↩
Sarah Nouwen, Complementarity in Uganda: Domestic Diversity or International Imposition?, in The International Criminal Court and Complementarity: From Theory to Practice 1120, 1121 (Carsten Stahn & Mohamed M. El Zeidy eds., 2011), paywall, doi. ↩
Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy 5, 16 (Sep. 14, 2006) [hereinafter Prosecutorial Strategy], available online. ↩
Patrick Vinck & Phuong N. Pham, The Content, Strategies and Methods of Outreach and Public Information Must be Based on Evidence, Localizing Outreach and Responding to the Needs and Expectations of Heterogeneous Communities Affected by Mass Violence, ICC Forum (Feb. 17, 2015), available online. ↩
Bing Bing Jia, The International Criminal Court’s Relations with the United Nations, ICC Forum (Jun. 28, 2018), available online; Konstantinos D. Magliveras, The Withdrawal of African States from the ICC: Good, Bad or Irrelevant?, 66 NILR 419 (Nov. 2019), available online, doi. ↩
Magliveras, supra note 5, at 433. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 39(2)(c), available online. ↩
Cf. id. Art. 34; see Magliveras, supra note 5, at n.91
(explaining that a separate Registry for each circuit would not be necessary). ↩
It may not be possible to have a circuit entirely staffed by representative nationals local to the circuit, at least initially and especially if the circuit is small, since there may not be enough candidates for each position. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 7, at Art. 36(2). ↩
See Press Release, ICC, ICC Deputy Prosecutors to be sworn in on 7 March 2022: Practical information (Mar. 1, 2022), available online. ↩
Rome Statute, Art. 42(2). ↩
Id. ↩
Id. Art. 122(1). ↩
Id. Art. 122(2). ↩
Id. ↩
Assembly of States Parties, ICC-ASP/14/34, Report of the Working Group on Amendments, ¶ 18 (Nov. 16, 2015), available online. ↩
Assembly of States Parties, ICC-ASP/15/24, Report of the Working Group on Amendments, ¶ 20 (Nov. 8, 2016), available online; Assembly of States Parties, ICC-ASP/16/22, Report of the Working Group on Amendments, ¶ 26 (Nov. 15, 2017), available online; Assembly of States Parties, ICC-ASP/17/35, Report of the Working Group on Amendments, ¶ 16 (Nov. 29, 2018), available online. ↩
Nouwen, supra note 2, at 1131. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at n.38. ↩
Id. at 1131. ↩
Id. at n.45. ↩
Id. at 1137. ↩
Vinck & Pham, supra note 4. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at n.4. ↩
Id. at 67. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 68. ↩
Id. at 69. ↩
See Prosecutorial Strategy, supra note 3. ↩
Susana SáCouto, Encouraging First Responders to Collaborate with the International Criminal Court and Improving their Capacity to Obtain Information so that it may be Used for Investigations or in Judicial Proceedings Involving Sexual and Gender Based Crimes, ICC Forum (Apr. 12, 2016), available online. ↩
Id. at 26. ↩
Id. at 35. ↩
Crime of Aggression—Amendments Ratification, ASP (Feb. 28, 2019), available online. ↩
See Kamari Maxine Clarke, Is the ICC Targeting Africa Inappropriately or Are There Sound Reasons and Justifications for Why All of the Situations Currently Under Investigation or Prosecution Happen to Be in Africa?, ICC Forum (Mar. 17, 2013), available online
(explaining that African states had strong incentives to sign on to the Rome Statute, despite the Statute’s inherent systemic bias against African states). ↩
Helping States Pursue Investigations Under Universal Jurisdiction: Proposed Role for the International Criminal Court and Interpol
Introduction
At a fundamental level, a state needs three things to pursue a criminal investigation through universal jurisdiction:
existing national laws or legislation authorizing the exercise of universal jurisdiction over the specific crime,
political will to apply those laws and pursue alleged criminals under the scrutiny of the international community, and
national capacity to conduct an effective investigation of the alleged crime.
While states face a host of challenges during each of these steps, this comment focuses on the challenges states face from an investigatory perspective. To this end, I suggest two things. First, the International Criminal Court (ICC or the Court) and the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) should set up a formal review process to evaluate state requests for assistance under Article 93(10) of the Rome Statute.1 This process would create an official rule board within the Court. Second, the ICC should leverage its cooperation agreement with the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) to grant a requesting state access to Interpol resources. At a high level, the goal of this suggestion is two-fold: first, to provide a way for states to access valuable assistance to supplement their investigative capacity, and two, to institutionalize a way for the ICC to receive and validate external requests for assistance.
Part I of this comment outlines several of the challenges that states face as they seek convictions under the exercise of universal jurisdiction. Part II provides an outline of the proposed procedure by which the ICC could provide additional assistance. This Part identifies a legal basis for this proposal and identifies how the proposal could be implemented in practice. Part III discusses why Interpol, given its connections to the international police community, would be an effective partner for this approach. Part IV addresses anticipated critiques of this proposal and offers counterarguments to these critiques. I find
that the Rome Statute and the Cooperation Agreement between the ICC and Interpol form an existing legal basis for this proposed procedure;
there are strong policy considerations underlying the proposed procedure, such as bringing legitimacy to the exercise of universal jurisdiction and conserving scarce OTP and Interpol resources;
Interpol is the ideal partner for this proposal due to their global network and reach; and
likely critiques can be meaningfully addressed.
I. General Challenges States Face When Applying Universal Jurisdiction
Despite speculation about the declining relevance of universal jurisdiction,2 data indicate that the exercise of universal jurisdiction is on the rise.3 Yet few states have the capacity to conduct effective investigations concerning the crimes set forth by Article 5 of the Rome Statute (Article 5 Crimes).4 Challenges arise in several forms.
First, states may simply lack the requisite national legislation authorizing the exercise of universal jurisdiction over a specific crime.5 And even when states have implemented legislation, many states, including States Parties to the Rome Statute, struggle to square international crimes with their domestic criminal codes.6 Moreover, to the extent that they have implemented legislation authorizing the exercise of universal jurisdiction over international crimes, the legislative definitions of the crimes may not comport with the definitions set forth by the Rome Statute or understood by international conventions.7
Second, states exercising universal jurisdiction must conduct investigations abroad, as key witnesses or evidence are likely to be within the jurisdiction of another state. They may find a lack of cooperation or outright obstruction from those states as they conduct the investigation, making it impossible to gather evidence and build an effective case.8 This may be especially true where the individual being accused of the crime is an active member of another state’s government.9 Further, conducting effective investigations abroad generally requires specialized personnel that can operate at an international level and effective diplomatic channels to engage with foreign police. Many states lack these resources.
Third, states often have little to no experience prosecuting Article 5 Crimes and may be unable to conduct an effective proceeding or one that would comport with international principles. This lack of institutional experience may serve to delegitimize the proceeding and lead the international community to speculate about whether justice was achieved. Assuming for the purposes of this comment that the exercise of universal jurisdiction is desirable, instances of mishandled prosecutions would sour international opinion in this area.
While the effective exercise of universal jurisdiction will require progress on all these fronts, this comment focuses on the second challenge identified above: state capacity to conduct effective investigations. Fundamentally, this requires international police cooperation between the prosecuting state and states that house evidence, witnesses, or defendants. I suggest that the ICC, in conjunction with Interpol, is well-positioned to facilitate this cooperation.
II. Proposal
I suggest that the ICC and the OTP establish a procedure to receive and evaluate requests from states to assist with the exercise of universal jurisdiction. This procedure would involve setting up a formal review board (Review Board) to hear state requests for assistance.10 Once a request is approved, then the OTP would refer the case to Interpol, which would work with the requesting country and engage police in the state or states where witnesses, evidence, or defendants are housed. I propose that the Rome Statute and the Cooperation Agreement between the ICC and Interpol serve as legal authorities for this proposal. Subsection A outlines the legal basis for the formation of a formal Review Board and identifies the policies that support it. Subsection B outlines the legal basis that allows the ICC to engage with Interpol. Subsection C proposes how this arrangement would operate in practice.
A. Legal Basis for the Establishment of a Formal Review Board to Process State Requests
Article 93(10)(a) of the Rome Statute enables the Court to cooperate with a States Party’s request for assistance with the investigation of a crime “which constitutes a serious crime under the national law of the requesting State.”11 The Court may also aid non-States Parties under Article 93(10)(c).12 Thus, there is a legal basis for any state, regardless of Rome Statute party status, to petition the Court for assistance. Likewise, there is a legal basis for the Court to hear and comply with these requests. A necessary implication of the power to receive a request is the power to evaluate the request. Since Article 93 does not prescribe a procedure for the evaluation of requests, the drafters imply that the Court may select its own method of review. Thus, a straightforward reading of Article 93 provides a legal basis for the creation of a formal review process, including the formation of a Review Board.
One wrinkle in this argument concerns where the Review Board would be housed. Of the ICC’s organs, the OTP seems best positioned to evaluate the merits of an external claim for assistance with an investigation. After all, the OTP’s sole focus is to evaluate and pursue Article 5 Crimes. But Article 42 of the Rome Statute explicitly states that “A member of the [OTP] shall not seek or act on instructions from any external source.”13 Thus, it seems that the OTP would not be able to directly receive requests under Article 93(10).
Article 15 and the rest of Article 93 are of little help. Article 15 outlines the Prosecutor’s power over crimes “within the jurisdiction of the Court.” While the crimes which states would seek assistance with are likely to be the kind of crimes that the Prosecutor generally has power over, they may have been committed in states where the Court lacks jurisdiction. Further, Article 93(10) states that the Court may provide assistance.14 It makes no mention of the Prosecutor—a fact made more troubling by other portions of Article 93 which explicitly state the Court or the Prosecutor.15 Thus, it seems that the drafters deliberately excluded the Prosecutor from Article 93(10).16 In any case, even if the Review Board needed to be housed elsewhere in the ICC, it is hard to imagine that Article 15 or any other provision of the Rome Statute would bar the OTP from consulting with the Review Board.
While it is unclear where the proposed Review Board would be housed, Article 93(10) provides an uncontroversial basis for the creation of a formal review process. Thus, there is a sound legal basis for the first step of this proposal.
B. Legal Basis for Referring Cases to Interpol
To authorize engagement between the Court-OTP and Interpol, the Court should leverage its cooperative agreement with Interpol as an implementing mechanism. Article 5(2) of the Cooperation Agreement states that the OTP may request the assistance of national teams, including war crime units.17 This provision is broad and could be interpreted to include assistance from Interpol to coordinate between the requesting state and the state where witnesses and evidence are housed.
If Article 5(2) is deemed insufficient to authorize this arrangement, we may also turn to Article 5(1), “Other Assistance from Interpol.” This provision states that “[t]he ICC-OTP may seek the expertise of the Interpol General Secretariat’s specialized staff” for “criminal analysis.”18 The language here is vague and leaves room for interpretation of what expertise from specialized staff would entail—I argue that this expertise could take the form of Interpol coordination efforts to assist with the investigation of Article 5 Crimes.
Interpol certainly has expertise in this area. Interpol has acknowledged that it:
As a testament to that belief, Interpol created a specialized unit in 2014 to assist with the investigation and prosecution of war crimes.20 Interpol also hosts trainings for law enforcement on how to address these crimes—as of 2015, Interpol had trained some one hundred investigators from thirty countries and six international organizations.21 Thus, the expertise contemplated by the Cooperation Agreement plausibly includes Interpol’s expertise in investigating Article 5 Crimes.
One issue with this interpretation is that Article 5(1) of the Cooperation Agreement mentions expertise staff from Interpol’s General Secretariate, which acts as Interpol’s administrative and executive organ.22 While it is unclear how much overlap there is between General Secretariate Staff and Interpol’s specialized unit on addressing war crimes, scholars observe that the General Secretariate coordinates all policing actions within Interpol.23 Thus, it seems likely that the Secretariate has the authority to coordinate between members of Interpol’s war crimes team and other states.
If Article 5 of the Cooperation Agreement is insufficient to authorize this arrangement despite the arguments above, then the ICC could turn to Article 7(2), which states that the agreement may be modified by mutual consent.24 The ICC could negotiate to add an implementing mechanism to the agreement—one that would allow the OTP to refer the requesting state to Interpol and engage Interpol’s investigatory staff. While the suggestion that the OTP and Interpol negotiate a new provision carries its own political challenges, as any negotiation between international organizations would, it would be one way to ensure that Interpol buys into this arrangement.
The final legal obstacle is that the Cooperation Agreement authorizes engagement between the ICC and Interpol, but it says nothing about engagement between Interpol and a third-party state petitioning the ICC for assistance. This obstacle may be surmounted in one of two ways. First, the ICC could act as the facilitating party for engagement between the state and Interpol. In this way, the Court would remain directly involved—the cooperative agreement does not explicitly bar an arrangement between Interpol, the ICC, and a third-party state, so this solution may fit within the four corners of the agreement. However, this solution may be undesirable for the Court, as it would need to assign a staff member for this role and cover any expenses such as travel, security, etc., for the duration of the cooperation. Another solution would be to argue that the cooperation only requires that the ICC initiate cooperation and that the Court is not required to have any role after that point. This would likely be more desirable to the Court and only marginally more questionable from a legal perspective. Again, the Cooperation Agreement lacks specificity, so there seems to be wide latitude for creative interpretations.
Beyond the Cooperation Agreement, Article 87 of the Rome Statute may also have a role. Article 87(1)(b) states that “requests [for cooperation] may also be transmitted through the International Criminal Police Organization.”25 That said, this approach also runs into an issue of jurisdiction. Article 86 implies that states need only comply with requests to cooperate on matters related to the investigation and prosecution of a crime within the Court’s jurisdiction.26 Because many of the requests for assistance with the prosecution of crimes under universal jurisdiction would likely involve matters that are not within the Court’s jurisdiction, Article 87 may be of limited use.
C. Implementation
While the question of where to house the Review Board may be unresolved, it is useful to propose its form. A three-panel board, consisting of pre-trial judges and acting in consultation with a Deputy Prosecutor, would be an ideal arrangement. Pre-trail judges are accustomed to working in three-person panels and making expert decisions on whether a case has merit.27 Deputy prosecutors are likewise trained to identify whether a case has merit, but they have the advantage of pursuing their own cases. Thus, they are well-positioned to evaluate the likelihood of an investigation leading to an effective prosecution. The requesting state would present its case and the Review Board would decide by simple majority with no appellate review.28
Regarding what criteria would be used to evaluate a case, Article 53 provides a useful starting point. Article 53 outlines the process by which the ICC Prosecutor will initiate an investigation.29 The most notable feature of Article 53 is its reference to the “interests of justice.” Article 53(1) and Article 52(2) taken together provide that the Prosecutor should consider whether taking action would serve:
While the correct interpretation of the phrase interests of justice is the subject of much debate,31 it may nonetheless serve as a useful starting point for how the proposed Review Board would approve or deny an application.
Once a request is approved, the Review Board would refer the case and the requesting state to a dedicated point of contact at Interpol.32 The referral should contain all the relevant details from the application and act as a guiding document for Interpol. For its part, Interpol would engage its National Central Bureau(s)33 in the member state or states where the relevant witnesses or evidence is located and coordinate between the multiple parties. Further, Interpol could leverage its criminal databases on behalf of the requesting States Party. These databases contain roughly 124 million police records and include personal information on individuals, forensics data, travel documents, etc.34 Access to these records may prove to be a boon for requesting states as they exercise universal jurisdiction.
III. Why the ICC Should Leverage Its Relationship with Interpol
I advocate that to aid its member states, the ICC should utilize its relationship with Interpol to provide investigatory and prosecutorial assistance. An observer may note that this approach seems circuitous—the ICC has its own investigatory staff, prosecutors, and cooperation provisions, so why not engage those resources instead? I advocate for channeling these requests through Interpol for three reasons. First, and as a matter of political will, the ICC would be more likely to pursue this option if it can utilize external resources—here, an Interpol war crimes unit—rather than shift resources away from ongoing OTP investigations.
Second, this option would be less controversial. Were the ICC to engage its own investigative teams, critics may characterize this as an undue broadening of the Court’s powers. The drafters of the Rome Statute declined to grant the ICC universal jurisdiction. Thus, if OTP personnel were conducting investigations on behalf of States Parties—parties that are exercising universal jurisdiction based on their national laws—critics may argue that this would represent a de facto expansion of the Court into the realm of universal jurisdiction. While there is no room here to address the merits of these claims, the Court would be better served by avoiding controversy where possible.
Third, Interpol is likely better positioned to aid requesting states in their investigations than the ICC or OTP. As one scholar notes:
As an institution, Interpol has had nearly an 80-year head start over the ICC to develop institutional strength and state partnerships. Each of Interpol’s 195 member states hosts an Interpol National Central Bureau (NCB). These NCBs give Interpol a direct connection to the national police force in each of its member states. Given Interpol’s activities in its member states regarding a variety of policing needs, it has built stronger on-the-ground relationships than the ICC. Interpol, by leveraging these relationships, would thus be a highly effective partner to requesting states as they conduct investigations abroad. Moreover, as mentioned above, Interpol has several databases that house sophisticated information on potential perpetrators of Article 5 Crimes. Being able to leverage those databases—on a limited basis and in accordance with any governing data protection law or policies—may prove to be a critical resource for the requesting state. For these reasons, Interpol would be a powerful partner to aid requesting states and facilitate police cooperation between states.
IV. Addressing Anticipated Critiques
The approach suggested here is by no means perfect. First, observers may argue that this approach adds an unnecessary layer given that most states have a direct channel to Interpol through NCBs—why channel requests through the ICC? Further, by adding an obstacle to engaging with Interpol, do we risk impeding justice by delaying assistance through bureaucratic channels? Finally, would this process act as a crutch for states and prevent them from developing their own mechanisms to investigate and prosecute crimes under universal jurisdiction?
Channeling requests through Interpol serves two functions. First, it may be the preferred approach by Interpol. Most international organizations desire to remain politically neutral, even if only superficially. The approach suggested here allows Interpol to defer requests from states that may be politically motivated and lack merit—requests that would be denied by the Review Board. Further, this would allow Interpol to preserve its resources for only those matters that have merit and are legitimate. Second, this process would strengthen the ICC as an institution. By making it the conduit for this assistance, the Court would have a new role on the global stage, and one that furthers its institutional goal of ending impunity for perpetrators of Article 5 Crimes. Further, this would help legitimize the exercise of universal jurisdiction—an exercise that has long been the subject of controversy—by ensuring that these cases have merit and serve the interests of justice.
To the question of impeding justice, I have three responses. First, the Court would need to ensure that the review process it establishes is timely, efficient, and transparent. It would also need to establish institutional goals and performance indicators for the Review Board that it reviews along with its other internal evaluations. Second, even if the suggested approval process is inefficient in practice, this would leave states no worse than they are without the process. They would still be able to exercise universal jurisdiction, they would simply not have the added external assistance to do so. Further, this process has the potential to facilitate justice, not impede it. When considering whether to exercise universal jurisdiction, states may elect to proceed or not based on their evaluation of their own capacity to conduct an effective investigation. If states feel that they can obtain external assistance from the ICC and Interpol, this may incentivize them to bring a claim that they otherwise would not due to a lack of institutional capacity. In this way, this process may increase the number of legitimate exercises of universal jurisdiction.
Another anticipated critique is the idea that relying on external aid rather than internal capacity building would leave nations in a weakened state and reliant on this process for future cases. This argument is unpersuasive for several reasons. First, data indicate that a handful of states are responsible for the overwhelming majority of instances where universal jurisdiction has been implemented.36 These states, including Germany, Finland, and Sweden, have developed the requisite institutional knowledge and policing units to carry out effective investigations and prosecutions of Article 5 Crimes. Thus, they have little to no need for external assistance or training from the ICC or Interpol. The process for external assistance recommended by this comment would primarily help those states that rarely exercise universal jurisdiction—states like South Korea37 and Poland.38 Where a state pursues cases under universal jurisdiction only one or two times over the course of decades, or where a state does not have an established policy for pursuing these cases, there is no reason to think that training or capacity building would be effective. If a state requests training without an ongoing case, it may be that those individuals who are trained leave their positions without having ever pursued a case and thereby deprive the institution of that training experience. This would mean that the training had no practical relevance. Further, providing training rather than assistance on an ad hoc basis for ongoing cases would only be useful in the context of that specific case given the likelihood that the state may not exercise universal jurisdiction for another decade or more. Third, pursuing a training or capacity-building program would likely be no more effective than the type of institutional learning that would occur while national authorities work closely with outside experts, police, or consultants—activities that would occur when a state requests and receives external assistance through the process proposed by this comment.
Conclusion
Cooperation among states and a lack of state capacity to pursue cases related to Article 5 Crimes present substantial obstacles to the exercise of universal jurisdiction. The Court and the OTP can act as better partners to these states by creating a formal assistance program under Article 93(10). Interpol would be the ideal international organization to partner with for this program given its broad ties to its member states. While there is a sound legal basis for portions of this program, several legal questions remain. A suggested area of future research would be to understand the legal limitations of the ICC Cooperation Agreement with Interpol. In addition, future research aimed at better understanding how Interpol engages with the global community would illuminate this proposal. As one scholar notes, Interpol, despite being one of the largest international organizations in the world, is “extremely under-researched.”39
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 93(10), available online. ↩
See, e.g., Rephael Ben-Ari, Universal Jurisdiction: Chronicle of a Death Foretold?, 43 Denv. J. Int’l L. & Pol’y 165 (2015), available online; Ignacio de la Rasilla del Moral, The Swan Song of Universal Jurisdiction in Spain, 9 Int’l Crim. L. Rev. 777 (2009), available online, doi. ↩
Máximo Langer & Mackenzie Eason, The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction, 30 EJIL 779, 784 (Dec. 11, 2019), available online, doi. ↩
See Bruce Broomhall, Towards the Development of an Effective System of Universal Jurisdiction for Crimes Under International Law, 35 New Eng. L. Rev. 399, 410 (2001), available online. ↩
Dalila V. Hoover, Universal Jurisdiction Not So Universal: Time to Delegate to the International Criminal Court, 8 Eyes on the ICC 73, 89 (Jun. 4, 2011), available paywall. ↩
Id.
(providing as an example that “prosecutors in states such as Denmark and Norway […] can only interpret international crimes in terms of national crimes that generally amount to murder or assault”). ↩
Id. at 91. ↩
Broomhall, supra note 4, at 412–15. ↩
Id. ↩
See Hoover, supra note 5, at 102–05
(suggesting the creation of an ICC Review Board primarily as a means of safeguarding against politically motivated exercises of universal jurisdiction). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 93(10)(a). ↩
Id. Art. 93(10)(c). ↩
Id. Art. 42. ↩
Id. Art. 93(10). ↩
See, e.g., Id. Art. 93(10)(5). ↩
See generally M. Cherif Bassiouni & William A. Schabas eds., The Legislative History of the International Criminal Court (Oct. 5, 2016), paywall
(providing a comprehensive record of the legislative history of the Rome Statute, a discussion of which is beyond the scope of this comment). ↩
Cooperation Agreement Between the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court and the International Criminal Police Organization, Art. 5(2) (Dec. 22, 2004, in force Mar. 22, 2005) [hereinafter Cooperation Agreement], available online, archived. ↩
Id. Art. 5(1). ↩
Interpol, War Crimes and Genocide Sub-Directorate, Interpol’s Support to the Investigation and Prosecution of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (2015), available as download (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Id. ↩
War Crimes, Interpol, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Cooperation Agreement, supra note 17, at Art. 5(1). ↩
Giulio Calcara, Balancing International Police Cooperation: Interpol and the Undesirable Trade-off Between Rights of Individuals and Global Security, 42 Liverpool L. Rev. 111, 118 (2021), available online, doi. ↩
Cooperation Agreement, supra note 17, at Art. 7(2). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 87(1)(b). ↩
See id. Art. 86. ↩
Judicial Divisions, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Given that the ICC will likely want to limit its personnel investment and that this Review Board would not be making a final binding legal decision, there is no need for appellate review. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 53. ↩
Id. Art. 53(1), Art. 53(2). ↩
See generally Philippa Webb, The ICC Prosecutor’s Discretion Not to Proceed in the “Interests of Justice,” 50 Crim. L. Q. 305 (2005), available online. ↩
See Cooperation Agreement, supra note 17, at Art. 3(1)
(“The Parties shall each designate a point of contact with a view to ensuring implementation of the provisions of the present Cooperation Agreement”). ↩
See generally National Central Bureaus, Interpol, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023)
(explaining that NCBs are offices that act as Interpol’s point of contact in each of its member states). ↩
Databases, Interpol, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Calcara supra note 23, at 113. ↩
Langer & Eason, supra note 3, figs.1 & 2. ↩
Korean Falun Gong Practitioners File Lawsuit Charging Jiang Zemin and “610 Office” Head Luo Gan with Genocide, Minghui.org (Dec. 29, 2003), available online. ↩
Summary of European Lawsuits Against Jiang Zemin and his Accomplices from the Chinese Communist Party, Clearharmony.net (Mar. 16, 2005), available online. ↩
Calcara, supra note 23, at 113. ↩
Regional Organizations Role in Implementing Complementarity: How Actions of Development Banks & the African Union Often Go Against the Interests of Justice
I. Introduction: How Do Regional Organizations Fit into Complementarity?
The complementarity principle of the International Criminal Court (ICC) places ICC prosecutions in a position of complementing, but not superseding, national jurisdiction.1 The complementarity principle asserts that national courts should have first priority to investigate and prosecute crimes committed within their jurisdictions, with the ICC acting only when national courts are unable or unwilling to perform their tasks.2 This is enshrined in the Rome Statute3 both in its object and purpose,4 and with regard to determining admissibility.5 However, often there is both a deficit in national courts’ ability or willingness to prosecute crimes listed in Article 5 of the Rome Statute6 (Article 5 Crimes) judiciously, while at the same time there is often a deficit in the ability of the ICC to prosecute.7 In this space between ICC and national court prosecutions, perpetrators avoid justice. Of thirty-eight indictments issued by the ICC, only twenty-one have been detained by the Court.8
Regional organizations are defined broadly in this comment. They include regional bodies, such as the African Union (AU) and Organization of American States, as well as economic bodies such as the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), and its subsidiaries and sister organizations, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These latter entities operate at the regional level through regional development banks and other multilateral financing institutions, thus they are included in this comment’s analysis and are referred to throughout as Development Banks. Interventions by these regional organizations have the potential to either bridge, or widen, the gap between ICC prosecution and national courts holding perpetrators accountable for Article 5 Crimes. As such, their actions may promote outcomes that are in the interest of justice, while at other times their conduct provides cover and/or enable wrongdoers. Thus, harming the implementation of positive complementarity.
The question presented by the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) is what role regional organizations may play to help implement the principle of complementarity. More pointedly, the goal of this inquiry should be to determine if regional organizations can provide a viable means to increase the administration of justice locally, thereby alleviating the burden on the resource-constrained OTP and promoting a wider, more expedient application of justice.9 A key question in this analysis is whether regional organizations are actually effective at preventing future atrocities or helping bring perpetrators to justice. If they are, then the international community should dedicate more resources and deference to regional organizations. If they are not, then the international community should rethink how much funding and political support it dedicates to such entities. Also worth considering are the practical limitations in the administration of justice and the extent to which the international community has the power to compel regional organizations, and national governments where atrocities take place, to act. Consideration of such limitations should be a factor in the decision-making process of the international community, i.e., if the international community has limited ability to compel national governments directly, then even if regional organizations are only moderately effective at preventing atrocities through complementarity, it would still be in the interest of justice to expand their role. Conversely, if particular regional organizations—such as the AU—have shown an inclination to help perpetrators evade justice altogether, then they are in fact operating to the detriment of justice and complementarity.
This comment argues that, theoretically, regional organizations can have an impact on the prevention of atrocities and promote complementarity, however, this impact depends significantly on how much power they wield and their integrity, both of which are factors that vary greatly by entity. Where regional organizations can compel national governments to act—such as by withholding funding in the case of Development Banks, or shaming them into action in the case of regional bodies—they have the potential to effectively promote of justice. However, this potential will only come to fruition when the members of a regional organization are motivated to act consistently and with integrity. Otherwise, such entities may inhibit the administration of justice by obfuscating the authority of the ICC and otherwise obstructing the international community’s attempts to prevent atrocities. This occurs when regional organizations’ conduct serves to legitimize and fund the activities of human rights violators, as well as when regional organizations seek to prevent the extradition of people indicted by the ICC on illegitimate grounds. Development Banks and the AU appear to be following this harmful path, to the detriment of justice.
II. Development Banks and Other Regional Organizations Fail to Adequately Consider Crimes When Making Funding Determinations
Development Banks, funded primarily by multilateral funding agencies such as the World Bank and the IMF,10 minimally consider violations of Article 5 Crimes when authorizing loans or granting loan forgiveness.11 Whereas some of these entities have safeguards to prevent and punish corruption by State actors, which threatens repayment, they often fail to adequately consider war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide; as in practice, promoting human rights are not their central objective. In a similar fashion, the ICC fails to significantly consider corruption when investigating and prosecuting crimes that fall under its jurisdiction, or admitting new States Parties.12 Similarly, the United Nations often fails to consider for human rights records when appointing States to human rights oriented committees. This failure to coordinate on issues of economic and humanitarian justice creates a gap in the fragmented international legal system that leads to the proliferation of injustice in both forms. Yet, the two are closely interlinked as repressive regimes often depend on the access to capital provided by Development Banks and other international organizations. While such financial institutions do not promulgate law as traditional hard law, they occupy an increasingly significant realm of soft law that influences how States behave with each other and with their constituents.
Additionally, many financing institutions have administrative processes that resemble tribunals, which should give them the ability to control the actions of States and officials within State governments.13 Failing to comply with the rules promulgated by ones of these Development Banks’ financing facilities can lead to a State being deemed not credit worthy and losing the good creditor status necessary to obtain continuous flows of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), or capital invested from abroad that is used domestically to build infrastructure, start new businesses, or expand existing businesses. The consequences of a State losing its credit worthiness can be detrimental to a national economy and limit the practical ability of a regime to wage war and/or commit atrocities. With the spread of technology and wider access to information, it is be expected that the public in these countries are increasingly aware of these correlations. As such, an adjudication by a Development Bank or other organization that determines whether FDI flows continue, should carry significant punishments not just for the State, but for the officials within the regimes of these States who rely on international financing to maintain their grip on power.
Some academics have argued that this exertion of soft power by regional and international organizations detracts from the salience of hard law adjudications, with these financing institutions having a more significant influence on the day-to-day operations of State behavior than the official tribunals conducted by the International Court of Justice or the ICC.14 Another significant criticism of the soft power created by these such organizations is that they operate in an opaque and inconsistent manner, harming the ability of the public or the international community to review the reasoning behind their determinations.15
This is supported by the fact that leaders of authoritarian governments in developing nations—that conduct elections—depend on the support of the public directly and that support depends, at least in part, on the regime’s ability to promote the economy.16 In States that do not conduct free and fair election, leaders depend even more heavily on the support of the military to remain in power. This support is also dependent on FDI and foreign cash reserves, indirectly, by ensuring the economy has a large enough tax base to continue funding the military’s operations, and directly, when the military leadership shares in the embezzlement and gatekeeping that comes with nearly all FDI in the developing world. Abusive leaders operating in this environment would be justified being more afraid of losing their source of funding, which may lead to their being overthrown, than the low risk of being extradited to the Hague. Thus, indiscriminate access to capital through Development Banks can legitimize atrocity-committing governments and reduce their relative threat assessment of an ICC prosecution. This is magnified when other regional organizations, such as the AU, use their collective power to provide mutual protection to leaders whose interests are aligned—for instance by casting ICC extradition as a colonialist, interventionist phenomenon that should be resisted.17
This conduct by regional organizations discourages the rule of law by incentivizing the political and military leadership to appoint friendly judges that are unlikely to bring them to justice for crimes against their population or neighboring States. It also provides corrupt regimes more capital to bribe these national courts. Thus, Development Banks’ indiscriminate funding provides more opportunities for high-stakes embezzlement, ratcheting up the financial incentive to retain power through undemocratic means, which then can lead to political violence and other human rights violations, which the corrupted judiciary is unlikely to punish. In doing so, Regional organizations here seem to drastically harm the implementation of complementarity.
However, there is hope. International organizations and Development Banks’ ability to withhold funding and stop a nation’s economic activities is a powerful tool that can be used to punish bad behavior, such as when a State fails to prosecute atrocities domestically or extradite heads of state indicted by the ICC. Where a regime is unwilling or unable to prosecute a government official for a serious crime, whether it is corruption or an Article 5 Crime, organizations could handle the matter through their internal adjudicative processes and conclude to withhold funding. As a result, criminally culpable officials would face increased scrutiny domestically, and States may be persuaded to prosecute these officials. Unfortunately, it seems likely that other bilateral and multilateral considerations, such as cooperation on national security matters and the promotion of global economic activity, led funding States in OECD countries to shy away from divesting in Development Banks and other organizations that fail to enforce strict consequences on recipients whose officials commit atrocities. These OECD countries’ failure to consistently demand compliance with basic human rights as a condition to accessing the global financial system has divested their power, and subsequently the regional organizations’ power, to compel violators into action. As a result, these regional organizations—namely, Development Banks that are effectively subsidiaries of the World Bank, IMF, and their sister organizations—which should have the ability to help implement complementarity, have instead contributed to the perpetuation of injustice. This failure to the align the interests of international organizations, who are all generally funded from the same source, is perhaps the starkest expression of inefficiency in the fragmented international legal system.
In fairness to such organizations, it is hard to predict what the world would look like in their absence. It is foreseeable that in the absence of institutionalized financial support, greater chaos and political upheaval would occur that involves more acts of violence against civilian populations and other atrocities, and lower overall social welfare in the aggregate. The institutionalization of corruption through these entities may even be a stabilizing force in some regions, such as Africa, where there are easily accessible natural resources which evildoers can exploit to fund conflict. Similarly, these financial institutions likely have been a factor in preventing conventional, prolonged State-on-State aggression among developing countries in the twenty-first century, as this activity is harder to conceal and arguably poses a larger threat to the international system, that would demand a response. Thanks in part to the stability provided by these Development Banks, the international community, especially funding nations, have a stronger economic interest in ensuring peace. Open warfare threatens markets and risks the total loss of capital that has been invested in a territory—whereas human rights violations injure people and societies dramatically, capital is at far more risk of total loss when there are attacks by conventional militaries against conventional militaries. Machiavellianly, the risk of nationalization also decreases when there is a stable, corrupt government.
Given the post-WWII impetus of the international community to stabilize currencies and markets18 as a means to promote peace and prevent future wars,19 the simplest answer is likely the correct one. Human rights violations caused indirectly by Development Banks and other organizations’ indiscriminate allocation of FDI has been an unfortunate, but unintended, consequence of obtaining external stability. However, mindful of this history, regional organizations and the OECD that funds them, should do more to promote internal security by committing to adjudicating the human rights and rule of law bona fides of recipients when making funding determinations. This should be done with a focus on consistency, integrity, and transparency in their processes to ensure that actions are in the interest of justice. Doing so would ensure regional organizations play a positive role in implementing complementarity.
If such organizations were to adopt stronger sanctioning tools, for instance, similar to those imposed by the United States’ Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) that target specific individuals, they could meaningfully punish wrongdoers and discourage individual criminal conduct. The OFAC program strips designated persons from being able to engage in legitimate commerce by threatening criminal charges against anyone who does business with them, freezing assets, and locking them out of the global banking system.20 Practically, these designations are serious punishments that carry meaningful impacts on targeted individuals as these sanctions prevent them from engaging in a broad range of day-to-day activities necessary to survive in the modern era. Cut off from conventional banking, designated individuals struggle to access their savings and as a result struggle to run their businesses and pay for the daily upkeep of their families.
For government and military officials operating in corrupt developing countries— i.e., the folks ordering human rights violations in the places where they are most likely to occur—this also means scarcer resources to pay the bribes and other facilitation payments necessary to retain political support, influence national courts when they are in local disputes, and fund personal security forces. If regional organizations had the ability to similarly disarm officials and military leaders, or entire State governments, by freezing assets or barring them from engaging in transactions, these individuals may lose their power to carry out atrocities—or escape culpability, by adversely influencing national courts. As a result, the domestic prosecution of Article 5 Crimes might become more likely. Thus, achieving positive complementarity.
For this to be effective, it would need to be done consistently and with integrity, rather than on an ad hoc basis when it is politically convenient. In theory, regional bodies are in a good position to carry this out as they allow the international community to pool resources and centralize their intentions. Additionally, most developing countries’ largest trading partners are their border States, who typically are also members of the same regional body. Thus, a coordinated regional effort to isolate an individual could reasonably be expected to go beyond financial activity and include freezing their cross-border commerce activities. However, if a State or individual could get around an organization’s sanctions, for instance if the relevant members of the international and regional community are not able and willing to comply with the mandate to isolate the bad actor, then that actor’s bad conduct may not be sufficiently discouraged. Their conduct may in fact get worse out of desperation.
Similarly troubling, if the result of such sanctions is limited to provoking the national governments to prosecute a violator for corruption, when they are also accused of Article 5 Crimes, the result would fall short of proportional justice. This seems to be what is occurring in Sudan. Following years of crippling OFAC sanctions, President Omar al-Bashir eventually lost the ability to control the military and was deposed. He is accused of genocide and crimes against humanity by the international community and by constituents of Sudan’s transitional government—which includes representatives from the Darfur region he is accused of oppressing. Yet, he has only stood trial domestically for corruption and money laundering, for which he was convicted and sentenced to two years imprisonment.21 To date, he has not been extradited on the open ICC warrant.22
Escaping adjudication of criminal liability for the full scope of evil conduct, i.e., if the punishment ends at sanctions and prosecution for only corruption and similar financial crimes, such an outcome does not seem to be in the interest of justice. Nonetheless, in some instances, this may be the greatest extent of possible justice given practical limitations. For instance, the ICC’s inability to compel extradition absent the willingness of the State government in control of the territory where the accused is living, means justice through a trial at the ICC cannot occur. Similarly, a regional organization forcing a national government to prosecute23 a former head of state or other officials domestically, by threatening crippling sanctions on the entire State or military intervention if the government does not comply, seems overly interventionalist and harmful to innocent civilians, some of whom would then be twice victimized—first by the human rights violator(s) and then by worsening economic conditions caused by the intervention. This also likely would not be in the interest of justice.
Where a national government is unwilling to comply with extradition, it seems unlikely that mild financial consequences or diminution of status through shaming by a regional body would compel complementarity. Regional organizations could target officials in the new national government with harsh sanctions if they failed to comply, but this may lead to political instability during an already transitional period. Thus, unless the new government posed a significant threat to regional peace and security, or was itself on the verge of committing grave human rights violations,24 this would also likely not be in the interest of justice. Therefore, it seems regional organizations’ ability to implement complementarity by force, even by economic force, would be unjust and impractical in many contexts. It would also likely be at odds with international law, which generally prohibits interventions into domestic sovereign affairs25 and certainly prohibits the use of armed force outside of self-defense or authorization by the United Nations Security Council.26
III. Other Comments on the AU
Regional bodies in the developing world, including the AU, have generally failed to help implement complementarity in recent years. As previously discussed, these regional organizations’ power comes primarily from the funding provided by OECD States, which are unwilling to condition funding on the adjunction of human rights abuses. Pragmatically, it would not be self-serving for the leaders of the AU to go against this status quo, as doing so would bind them to additional obligations and prevent them from using the organization to protect their personal interests. Thus, it is unlikely the AU or similar regional bodies would meaningfully act to implement complementarity unless Member States’ national leaders were compelled to do so by their voters or the international community.
These regional organizations primarily act when doing so suits the collective interests of the leaders of their member States. And in many regions of the world, and in Africa particularly, there exists an agency problem—the interests of leaders are not aligned with the interests of civilian populations when it comes to accountability for human rights violations. Absent free and fair domestic elections, a civilian population’s interests will not be reflected in a regional bodies’ decision to assist in holding a leaders criminally culpable for Article 5 Crimes. Many members of the AU do not hold free and fair elections. Thus, the AU will continue to protect the interests of leaders rather than the interests of Member States’ populations. Only when the AU’s legitimacy is existentially threatened, for instance by failing to denounce a genocide, would the organization be expected to act in a way that goes against leaders’ interest in preserving their ability to violate human rights without interference.
With respect to implementing complimentary, the AU’s biggest contribution has been its use of collective power to shield past and future wrongdoers from criminal culpability by framing ICC extradition as a neocolonial enterprise, when in fact its members freely consented to joining. By resisting efforts to extradite heads of state, and failing to denounce grievous human rights violations, the AU legitimizes conduct that could be interpreted as Article 5 Crimes. This goes against the complementarity principle as the AU’s goal is to shield heads of states from justice altogether, not promote national court prosecutions for Article 5 Crimes.
The creation of the African Court for People and Human Rights by the AU appears to be a doubling down of this strategy.27 It is unclear how an international criminal prosecution28 under this tribunal would be perceived by the ICC, in terms of double jeopardy, or ne bis in idem.29 Would an African head of state indicted by the ICC have his case dropped if charges were bought under this tribunal? According to the Rome Statute:
Given the AU’s lack of integrity in its resistance to extraditing Omar al-Bashir, and through its persistent threats to withdraw from the Rome Statute,31 it seems unlikely that this AU tribunal would impartially bring an African head of state to justice for a violation of an Article 5 Crime. If such a proceeding was analyzed by the ICC, it likely would be deemed as a trial conducted for the purpose of shielding the person concerned from criminal responsibility, inconsistent with an intent to bring them to justice. Thus, it seems the AU is using this tribunal as a collective effort to implement negative complementarity.32 It is a smart tactic as this sets up the OTP for a political fight, where the ICC will have to defend its position by attacking the ability of this regional organization to conduct an impartial trial, which will likely come across as colonial and condescending, to the benefit of the AU’s primary argument for withdrawal. Nonetheless, on its face, the establishment of this court looks like an attempt to deny victims justice and help current and former heads of state escape culpability through sham complimentarily, while laying the groundwork for a ne bis in idem defense should the ICC challenge it. This is not in the interest of justice.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Linda E. Carter, The Principle of Complementarity and the International Criminal Court: The Role of Ne Bis in Idem, 8 Santa Clara J. Int’l L. 167 (2010), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9, as amended [hereinafter Rome Statute], available online. ↩
Id. at Preamble. ↩
Id. Art. 17(1)(a). ↩
See id. Art. 5
(defining ICC jurisdiction over the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression). ↩
Id. Art. 5
(requiring the accused to be present at trial, due to this formality, and the failure of the ICC to either find an accused or compel their extradition, only slightly more than half of the people indicted by the ICC have been tried at the Hague). ↩
About the Court, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023).
(Charges were dropped against five, who died prior to trial; presumably, these and other twelve who remain at large, escaped justice). ↩
Justice can take on many meanings that go beyond criminal culpability of a perpetrator for past crimes, such as taking measures that seek to prevent future atrocities. Examples of this include truth and reconciliation, the promotion of human rights as a top national priority, and building capacity in national legal systems to ensure future perpetrators are held accountable. These are all instances where regional organizations might play a role. ↩
Ana Carolina Garriga, Human Rights Regimes, Reputation, and Foreign Direct Investment, 60 Int’l Stud. Q. 160 (Mar. 2016), available online, doi. ↩
Beth A. Simmons & Allison Danner, Credible Commitments and the International Criminal Court, Int’l Org. 225 (Apr. 2010), available online, doi
(finding that States most likely to commit atrocities are incentivized to join human rights treaties in order to obtain reputational benefits, but in practice these commitments have little practical importance). ↩
James R. Hollyer & Bryan Peter Rosendorff, Why Do Authoritarian Regimes Sign the Convention Against Torture? Signaling, Domestic Politics and Non-Compliance, SSRN (Jun. 1, 2011), available online, doi. ↩
Antonio Franceschet, The Rule of Law, Inequality, and the International Criminal Court, 29 Alternatives 23 (Feb. 2004), paywall, doi. ↩
See generally, Cathrin Zengerling, Regional International Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Bodies, in Greening International Jurisprudence: Environmental NGOs before International Courts, Tribunals, and Compliance Committees 93 (Aug. 22, 2013), available online. ↩
Dinah Shelton ed., Commitment and Compliance: The Role of Non-binding Norms in the International Legal System (Oct. 9, 2003), paywall, doi. ↩
Economies of developing countries often rely significantly on FDI-intensive infrastructure and resource extraction projects, as well as foreign cash reserves and the international banking system to conduct trade. ↩
This allows leaders of States to obtain the benefits of membership in the Rome Statute, e.g., legitimization internationally, an air of respect for human rights, and the ability to weaponize ICC prosecutions against their foes, while avoiding the consequences themselves. Thus, they are better off remaining in the treaty than withdrawing. ↩
Cooperation and Restoration (1944–71), IMF, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
United Nations Charter, Preamble, available online. ↩
See The Office of Foreign Assets Control—Sanctions Information, U.S. Dept. of Treas., available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023).
(“The Office of Foreign Assets Control (‘OFAC’) of the U.S. Department of the Treasury administers and enforces economic and trade sanctions based on U.S. foreign policy and national security goals against targeted foreign countries and regimes, terrorists, international narcotics traffickers, those engaged in activities related to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and other threats to the national security, foreign policy or economy of the United States.”). ↩
Abdi Latif Dahir, Sudan’s Ousted Leader is Sentenced to Two Years for Corruption, N.Y. Times, Dec. 13, 2019, available online.
(Omar al-Bashir was convicted in a domestic Sudanese court for corruption charges in late 2019 and is currently serving this two-year sentence while an ICC warrant has been outstanding for his arrest for twelve years). ↩
See Al Bashir Case, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023)
(“[The outstanding ICC warrant consists of] five counts of crimes against humanity: murder, extermination, forcible transfer, torture, and rape; two counts of war crimes: intentionally directing attacks against a civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking part in hostilities, and pillaging; three counts of genocide: by killing, by causing serious bodily or mental harm, and by deliberately inflicting on each target group conditions of life calculated to bring about the group’s physical destruction, allegedly committed at least between 2003 and 2008 in Darfur, Sudan.”). ↩
The same analysis applies to regional organizations attempting to force a national government to extradite indicted individuals to the ICC. ↩
See, e.g., Ben Kioko, The Right of Intervention Under the African Union’s Constitutive Act, Int’l Rev. Red Cross 85, 807 (Dec. 2003), available online
(concluding that Article 4(h) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union gives the AU the right to intervene militarily to prevent Article 5 Crimes in an AU Member State, but that practically, such an intervention would be difficult for the AU to decide on and to carry out). ↩
United Nations Charter, supra note 19, at Art. 2(7). ↩
Id. Art. 51. ↩
Max du Plessis, A Case of Negative Regional Complementarity? Giving the African Court of Justice and Human Rights Jurisdiction over International Crimes, EJIL Talk (Aug. 27, 2012), available online. ↩
See generally, Pascifique Manirakiza, Complementarity between the International Criminal Law Section and Human Rights Mechanisms in Africa, in The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Developments and Challenges, 989 (Charles Chernor Jalloh, Kamari Maxine Clarke & Vincent Obisienunwo Orlu Nmehielle eds., May 2, 2019), available online, doi
(discussing how this court does not presently have the authority to prosecute criminal liability, however, this is something AU members are pushing for). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 20. ↩
Id. ↩
du Plessis, supra note 27. ↩
Vincent Obisienunwo Orlu Nmehielle, “Saddling” the New African Regional Human Rights Court with International Criminal Jurisdiction: Innovative, Obstructive, Expedient?, 7 AJLS 7 (Aug. 27, 2014), available online, doi. ↩
Universal Jurisdiction’s Universal Issues: Solutions for the States by the ICC
I. Introduction
Universal jurisdiction is an element of international law that is frequently exercised by many countries across the world. It is most generally exercised by states that have an interest in seeing perpetrators of international crimes brought to justice. It has recently been exercised by Germany prosecuting Syrian officials and by Argentina in relation to the conflict in Myanmar.1 There has also been a call for countries to exercise jurisdiction against Russia for the war in Ukraine.2
This principle allows a state to exercise jurisdiction over a criminal, even if the crimes were not committed in their territory. The suspect generally does not even have to be in the territory of that state for them to exercise jurisdiction. Although, the crime must be an outrage to the international community as a whole, in order for another state to exercise universal jurisdiction. These types of crimes include: genocide, crimes of aggression, mass rape, and crimes against humanity. Which are agreed upon by the international community to be so egregious that the perpetrators must be investigated and brought to justice at any cost, even if that cost is an investigation by a completely unrelated state.
This comment explores the current landscape of universal jurisdiction, the major issues with the existing landscape, and what the International Criminal Court (ICC) can do, as a partner to the states, to help solve some of these issues. Section II explores and explains the current landscape of the legislation around universal jurisdiction. This section explains this principle from both the perspective of the states and the ICC. Then, Section III explores the current issues with universal jurisdiction. Finally, Section IV explores the solutions necessary for the ICC to assist in mending each of these issues.
II. Current Landscape of Universal Jurisdiction
The principle of universal jurisdiction is essentially about cultivating an international community through the protection of human rights by the prosecution of international criminals.3 Certain crimes like genocide or crimes against humanity are likely to go unpunished if some form of universal jurisdiction is not available, because the national state is unlikely to prosecute the perpetrators.4 This leaves the prosecution up to either the ICC or other states abroad. In order for a state to exercise universal jurisdiction, the offense must be so heinous that it offends or diminishes us all, so the international community is entitled to punish the perpetrator.5
The ICC is a court of last resort and is only meant to complement national courts when they are unable to exercise jurisdiction.6 Currently, the ICC does not have any sort of organ to review a state’s prosecution and evaluate it for fairness.7 Additionally, the ICC does not have truly universal jurisdiction, as it can only prosecute crimes that occur in a state that has ratified the Rome Statute.8 With only 110 states parties, the ICC has not diminished the need for universal jurisdiction.9 Therefore, the ICC can only encourage bystander prosecutions where other states exercise universal jurisdiction.10 Without other states practicing universal jurisdiction, “travelling tyrants” will not be dealt with.11
Under international law, the primary responsibility to prosecute, investigate, and bring perpetrators to justice is given to the national authorities.12 To have an effective prosecution under universal jurisdiction, there must be international cooperation.13 This allows a country to prosecute people for serious international crimes, regardless of where the atrocities occurred.14 The alternatives to universal jurisdiction are prosecution of criminals by international entities or by their national courts.15 Neither is fully sufficient on their own.16
The idea of universal jurisdiction is justified by the fact that all states parties to the relevant treaties have effectively consented to the exercise of jurisdiction by another state.17 It is a mechanism intended to disrupt states when they are acting outside of international norms.18 This mechanism is commonly used in order for a state to not become a safe haven for international criminals.19 Although, no successful prosecutions of high-ranking officials under universal jurisdiction have so far been reported.20
International law does not require that the perpetrator be present for a country to exercise universal jurisdiction, a state can open an investigation without the suspect’s presence.21 Although, this generally requires cooperation from the state where the crime occurred, which may be difficult to obtain.22 State to state cooperation is essential for universal jurisdiction prosecution in order to locate and transport witnesses, authenticate documents, transport evidence, and discourage political interference.23
Approximately 125 countries have legislation on universal jurisdiction that permits their courts to exercise it over any crime that arises to the level of international law.24 Universal jurisdiction can be exercised over both crimes arising under international law and ordinary crimes that arise under national law.25 In 2019, there were 2906 universal jurisdiction cases ongoing in the European Union alone.26
III. Issues with the Current Landscape of Universal Jurisdiction
There are many issues with the way universal jurisdiction is currently being implemented, which greatly affects its success in bringing justice to victims of mass atrocities. The major issue is that almost all of the legislation on universal jurisdiction is flawed in some way.27 Another issue is slow arrest procedures and investigations.28 Other substantial issues are heads of state and government officials’ immunities, states not knowing how to prosecute international criminals, and ineffective international monitoring of investigations and prosecutions.
Most states have not enacted legislation that permits their courts to exercise universal jurisdiction over crimes against humanity, war crimes, or genocide.29 Very few states have legislation that covers all of these crimes.30 Every state’s legislation falls short of fully covering all of these crimes, thus creating the opportunity for the state to be a safe haven for criminals.31 Although, some states have had success applying international criminal laws in the absence of a national law.32
Furthermore, the legislation in some states is not consistent with the Rome Statute, so the punishments do not rise to the same level as the atrocity that was committed.33 In this situation, states fail to capture the full nature of the crime. For example, torture is not the same as assault and should not receive the same sentence.34 A few states even still have a statute of limitations on these international crimes, resulting in those states being safe havens for criminals after that period of time expires.35
Many states have slow arrest procedures and investigations, which gives suspects time to flee.36 Some states even require evidence of the presence of the suspect, before they can open a preliminary investigation.37 Additionally, it is difficult for states to locate witnesses in other states without assistance from that state.38 It is also difficult for states to obtain physical evidence from abroad.39 Even when they do obtain this evidence, it is difficult to authenticate it.40
This slow investigation and arrest procedure, is usually due to a lack of political will to actually investigate the crimes.41 Often, the states’ interests trump the interests of the victims in these cases.42 There is a contest between the rights of the victims and the rights of the states, which requires a balancing test to result in a proper investigation and prosecution.43
Another issue is that many states provide immunities to government officials, even for crimes against humanity.44 This immunity is granted because there is a fear of upsetting other states and the result of allowing these international immunities is that many perpetrators are not investigated.45 Many states originally have immunities for heads of state, government officials, and diplomats to protect them from civil suits and ordinary criminal prosecutions while abroad.46 This could be the case because criminal justice systems are often controlled by remaining elements from former regimes.47 Although, these immunities were not designed to protect heads of state from prosecution for international crimes.48 This allows for immunity for crimes that were not intended by the international community.
Another issue is that the investigation and prosecution of international criminals requires specialized knowledge and experience, that many states lack.49 It also requires skills and experience in evidence gathering abroad, interviewing victims, witness protection, negotiation with law enforcement agencies, and language ability.50 Many states lack these sophisticated task forces and experience in investigating and prosecuting international criminals.51
An additional issue, is that there is no effective international monitoring of a state’s investigation and prosecution.52 The ICC does not generally monitor the performance of states in enforcing international criminal law.53 This allows states to conduct sham investigations and prosecutions; states would likely take this responsibility more seriously if there was some form of international monitoring.54
IV. Solutions for the ICC to be a Better Partner
The ICC has the potential to solve most of the issues that come with exercising universal jurisdiction, thus becoming a more effective partner to the states in implementing this principle. With the ICC’s assistance, states will be more likely to have successful prosecutions of international criminals and get justice for victims. The ICC can offer assistance through many different avenues: preparing states for investigations and prosecution, fixing flawed legislation, and creating an international review board. These resources would be invaluable to the states attempting to exercise universal jurisdiction.
The first step for the ICC to help would be for them to survey states for what the main issues truly are. This survey will take into account the resources, population, legislation, and political landscape of the states. These data points will help the ICC determine which states need more assistance and which areas of the prosecution or investigation that they are struggling with. The purpose of the survey will be to gather data on what international crimes are the most difficult to prosecute and what the other shortcomings of the states are in these areas. Once the ICC has data on what areas the states are struggling with, they can offer better assistance in bringing justice to victims.
A. Flawed Legislation
The ICC could assist in fixing the flawed legislation of the states by drafting a toolkit on universal jurisdiction and international criminal law. This toolkit will include recommendations and best practices for the states to legislate, investigate, and prosecute international crimes. The ICC is the best entity to create this resource, because the Office of the Prosecutor knows what is required to carry out a trial of this type. With the experience of the ICC, a toolkit could be created that shows an exact pathway to a successful trial.
This toolkit would encourage states to review their national jurisdiction and legislation to better implement and define international law. This toolkit would also guide states in creating legislation that properly covers international crimes, because it would be based on the Rome Statute. This would help states to clearly define the crimes in their own statutes, instead of having to relate an atrocity to an ordinary crime in order to prosecute. It is essential for every state that seeks to exercise universal jurisdiction to have the proper framework. This framework would help create fairer trials and investigations. With this assistance from the ICC, the toolkit would help make universal jurisdiction, more universal.
B. Immunities
The ICC could also include guidelines for diplomats, heads of state, and government officials’ immunity in the toolkit. These guidelines would create a universal rule that waives immunity for any perpetrator of a mass atrocity. This is a major issue that states face when exercising universal jurisdiction and the ICC could alleviate this issue by encouraging states to drop the immunity clauses from their statutes for international criminals. With an immunity clause, universal jurisdiction is not successful, so as a partner to the states the ICC should strongly encourage a waiver of immunity in grave situations.
C. Slow Arrest Procedures and Investigations
The ICC could assist in accelerating investigations and arrest procedures by creating a taskforce of investigators that can be sent to assist the states. This taskforce would solve the issues of bureaucracy that currently confront investigators when trying to investigate crimes abroad. These investigators would be specially trained in investigating crimes of mass atrocity, as well as language skills. This training would allow them to investigate more efficiently than the typical investigators for ordinary crimes.
Additionally, this taskforce can be deployed directly onsite to the territory where the crime occurred much faster than any investigators from the state exercising universal jurisdiction. Due to the political landscape, it is likely that an international entity would be allowed to investigate before another state would be. This would assist the states by gathering evidence before it is tampered with and actuating arrests in a timely manner.
D. Unknowledgeable National State Officials
The ICC could amend state ignorance on international criminal prosecution by creating an international criminal law academy. This academy would train judges, prosecutors, and investigators on how to handle trials of this magnitude. The training would likely include investigation techniques, the ways international criminal law differs from ordinary criminal law, and the best practices for prosecuting a foreign national without the consent of their home state. This training academy would greatly assist national courts in hosting effective trials.
The ICC could also create specialized units for each of the crimes that fall under universal jurisdiction. These units would have specific training, resources, and knowledge on investigating and prosecuting that one specific crime. These units could be deployed to the state exercising jurisdiction to assist local prosecutors. This assistance would help states see the ICC as a more effective partner, because their assistance would be evident in both the trial and investigation.
E. Ineffective International Monitoring
Another way the ICC can be a better partner in universal jurisdiction is to create a mechanism for effective international monitoring. The ICC should create a review board to monitor the investigations and prosecutions of states for fairness and adequacy. If the states were to be under the scrutiny of an international review board, then a more successful prosecution would be likely to result.55 The review board would have the responsibility of reviewing evidence during the pre-trial process and then they would decide if that state has the ability to carry out the trial properly. This would allow the ICC to have oversight of the investigations and trials that both a national state and a state exercising universal jurisdiction are conducting.
F. Expanding Article 93(10) of the Rome Statute
In order to be a more effective partner in universal jurisdiction, the ICC should expand Article 93(10) of the Rome Statute.56 This article allows the ICC to aid a state party conducting an investigation by transmitting documents and questioning persons detained by the court.57
The ICC should expand this article to include more forms of assistance. This assistance could be evidence gathering, victim transportation, and suspect arrests. It would also be necessary to amend this article to include the solutions, listed in the subsections of this Section, to hold the court accountable to the states parties as a partner in universal jurisdiction.
V. Conclusion
Universal jurisdiction is an essential, yet complicated aspect of international law. As discussed in this comment, it was designed to protect the international community from mass atrocities. As well as, creating a mechanism for countries to diminish safe havens for international criminals. This is an important mission to both the ICC and states around the world.
Although, there are many issues with how it is currently being implemented. The states have failed to create legislation that properly implements universal jurisdiction, because the crimes are not clearly defined and are inconsistent with the Rome Statute. The legislation also frequently includes archaic immunity clauses or statutes of limitations. The states also have slow arrest and investigation procedures due to bureaucracy and difficulties obtaining evidence and witness statements from abroad. The states also simply do not know how to prosecute crimes of this magnitude and the ICC does not have a proper review system to monitor the investigations and trials for adequacy.
The ICC can provide a solution to all of these issues through amending Article 93(10) of the Rome Statute. The ICC can amend this provision to include a toolkit to fix flawed legislation, a taskforce to accelerate investigations and arrests, an academy to train state officials and prosecutors, and a review board to review states’ investigations and prosecutions. Through these solutions, the ICC has the potential to be a more effective partner to the states when they are exercising universal jurisdiction.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Steve Szymanski & Peter C. Combe, The Siren Song of Universal Jurisdiction: A Cautionary Note, Articles of War (Apr. 1, 2022), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Adeno Addis, Imagining the International Community: The Constitutive Dimension of Universal Jurisdiction, 31 Hum. Rts. Q. 129, 144 (Feb. 2009), available online. ↩
Id. at 140–41. ↩
Id. at 138. ↩
Dalila V. Hoover, Universal Jurisdiction not so Universal: A Time to Delegate to the International Criminal Court, 52 Cornell L. Sch. Grad. Student Papers 7–8 (Jun. 4, 2011), available online. ↩
See id. at 103. ↩
Cedric Ryngaert, The International Criminal Court and Universal Jurisdiction: A Fraught Relationship?, 12 New Crim. L. Rev. 498, 500 (Oct. 1, 2009), available online, doi. ↩
Human Rights Watch, Basic Facts on Universal Jurisdiction (Oct. 19, 2009), available online. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 8, at 505. ↩
Olympia Bekou & Robert Cryer, The International Criminal Court and Universal Jurisdiction: A Close Encounter?, 56 ICLQ 49, 52 (Jan. 2007), available online, doi. ↩
Eurojust, Supporting Judicial Authorities in the Fight Against Core International Crimes (2020), available online. ↩
Christopher Keith Hall, Amnesty Int’l, Universal Jurisdiction: The Challenges for Police and Prosecuting Authorities, 1 (Jun. 13, 2007) [hereinafter Challenges for Police], available online. ↩
Douglass Cassel, Universal Criminal Jurisdiction, 31 Hum. Rts. 22, 22 (2004), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Devika Hovell, The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction, 29 EJIL 427, 432 (Jul. 23, 2018), available online, doi. ↩
Id. at 435. ↩
Id. at 439. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 8, at 507. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 12. ↩
Id. at 14–20. ↩
Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 3. ↩
Id. ↩
Howard Varney & Katarzyna Zduńczyk, ICTJ, Advancing Global Accountability: The Role of Universal Jurisdiction in Prosecuting International Crimes, 1, 35 (Dec. 2020), available online. ↩
Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 3. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Hoover, supra note 6, at 88. ↩
See Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 4. ↩
Hoover, supra note 6, at 90. ↩
See Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 4; Hoover, supra note 4, at 91. ↩
Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 4. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 14. ↩
Id. ↩
Hoover, supra note 6, at 94. ↩
Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 19. ↩
Hovell, supra note 17, at 450. ↩
Id. at 452. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 8, at 507. ↩
Id. ↩
Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 5. ↩
Varney & Zduńczyk, supra note 26, at 3. ↩
Challenges for Police, supra note 13, at 5. ↩
Id. at 18. ↩
Id. ↩
See id. ↩
Id. at 21. ↩
Id. ↩
See id. ↩
See Hoover, supra note 6, at 103. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 93(10), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
ICC as a Partner for States Trying Universal Jurisdiction Cases
I. Introduction
As a greater number of states try universal jurisdiction-based cases, it is apparent that the International Criminal Court (ICC) should make itself a better partner for these states. Universal jurisdiction allows states to try crimes, similar to those outlined in the Rome Statute,1 no matter where the crime occurred or who was involved; however, not all states have enacted the legal framework or developed the structure needed to try these cases. Analyzing states such as Sweden, Germany, Finland, and France that continue to try universal jurisdiction-based cases establishes common threads amongst states who do try these cases. While each state is unique in their respective laws and infrastructure, they have each developed specific legal frameworks modeled after the Rome Statute and implemented infrastructure such as head investigators and crime units to drive the investigation. Additionally, research has shown the importance of “institutional knowledge” for trying these cases. Essentially, states that have tried a case already are more likely to try a case in the future as a result of gained institutional knowledge. Accordingly, the ICC can utilize the Assembly of States Parties at the Hague to train states for trying universal jurisdiction-based cases. Furthermore, from these training sessions and discussion from states that have been successfully trying cases, needed amendments for evidence produced under Rome Statute Article 90(3) can be developed.
In order to address how the Office of the Prosecutor can make itself a more effective partner for State exercise of universal jurisdiction, a background of universal jurisdiction is key. There are several types of jurisdiction including both prescriptive and universal jurisdiction.2 Pursuant to international law, prescriptive jurisdiction allows a nation to apply their own national laws to activity that impacts their national or sovereign interests.3 According to this principle, a State may exercise jurisdiction over activity that happens in their own territory or includes its nationals.4 Furthermore, a State could claim jurisdiction over behavior that is against a State’s security or state functions.5 In contrast with prescriptive jurisdiction which relies on a “nexus to a national entitlement of the State claiming jurisdiction,” universal jurisdiction requires no nexus.6 Universal jurisdiction can be defined as:
Under the principle of universal jurisdiction, the very act of specific crimes notated under international law creates jurisdiction for all States no matter where the crimes happened or who was involved.8 Crimes that qualify for universal jurisdiction are serious crimes that violate international law such as crimes against humanity, war crimes, genocide, and torture.9
The two “permanent criminal law enforcement regimes available” when a state has a tie to a recognized core international crime are universal jurisdiction by States and the ICC.10 For a state to try a crime under universal jurisdiction, there are essentially three pieces required
Specified grounds for exercise of jurisdiction,
A well-defined offense, and
Means for the nation to enforce the exercise of jurisdiction.11
The Rome Statute and the principle of complementarity gives express preference for domestically led prosecutions.12 Accordingly, there may be a preference to defer to a State to exercise universal jurisdiction, where possible, in line with goals set out by the Rome Statute. While cases may be deferred to states, the recent case for Rohingya demonstrates ICC investigations and State exercise of universal jurisdiction are not mutually exclusive.13 Additionally, while the principles set out in the Rome Statute promote working together, Article 90(3) of the Rome Statute currently outlines the hierarchy for extradition in the case that a state receives requests to extradite an individual from both the ICC and another state, that is a member or not, simultaneously.14 Under this Article, the ICC is given preference over competing requests. It is clear that to promote collaboration and make the ICC a more effective partner with states exercising universal jurisdiction, there are several changes that the ICC could make. These changes could include a multi-faceted approach including training and amending Article 90(3).
II. Exemplary State Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction
Scholars have expressed varying opinions on the history of states exercising universal jurisdiction. While some have described it as a “rise and fall” pattern with it being on the decline, others have disagreed asserting that states exercising universal jurisdiction has been quietly on the rise.15 Specifically, a recent study gathered data on universal jurisdiction and made several findings. First, “the sum total of cases initiated and the defendants tried on the basis of universal jurisdiction has continued to rise.”16 Additionally, each year in the last decade has had “at least one universal jurisdiction-based prosecution brought to trial, and […] there have been more such trials than in the prior two decades combined.”17 Moreover, the exercise of universal jurisdiction has grown to cover more geographic areas.18 As other researchers have asserted this motivation to increase universal jurisdiction-based cases has grown in part due to the shortcomings of the ICC, as a result of budget constraints and limited jurisdiction, the need for cooperative ICC efforts for universal jurisdiction-based cases is clear.
According to the study completed, prior to 1988 there were 286 universal jurisdiction cases tried, from 1988 to 1977 there were 342 cases, from 1998 to 2007 there were 503 cases, and from 2008 to 2017 there were 815 cases tried.19 Individual states that have tried universal jurisdiction cases have experienced different patterns and surges of cases depending on events that have impacted States in varying ways; however, looking to individual states with histories of completing trials can be informative. Specifically analyzing political conditions and enactments of laws that empowered states to try universal jurisdiction-based cases is significant.
A first state that can be analyzed is Sweden, who has tried nine cases between 2008 and 2017.20 Sweden and other Nordic states have taken on a greater role trying cases particularly due to Middle Eastern and Syrian related crimes.21 In July 2014, Sweden’s Parliament issued the Act on Criminal Responsibility for Genocide, Crimes against Humanity, and War Crimes.22 This Act models the Rome Statute. Furthermore, Sweden has a War Crime Unit which is “responsible for all investigations into genocides, crimes against humanity and war crimes.”23 This infrastructure has allowed Sweden to develop a system in which universal jurisdiction cases can be successfully brought and tried. As a positive consequence, NGOs have actively promoted Sweden as a potential option for trying crimes committed in Syria.24 For example, the Syria Justice and Accountability Center offers a “Guide to National Prosecutions in Sweden for Crimes Committed in Syria.”25 Accordingly, Sweden can be instructive in understanding how laws, infrastructure, and a focus tended towards certain crimes can develop a successful system for trying universal jurisdiction-based crimes.
Another state that can be instructive is Germany, who has tried five universal jurisdiction cases between 2008 and 2017.26 Similar to Sweden, Germany has laws aimed to ICC eligible crimes modeled after the Rome Statute. Specifically, their Code of Crimes against International Law (CCAIL) that was enacted in 2002 and revised in 2016.27 Germany has recently tried cases trying crimes committed in a variety of geographic ranges. For example, they tried cases for both crimes against humanity and war crimes committed in Syria.28 They even made history for the first criminal trial for governmental torture committed in Syria.29 Additionally, they have tried cases outside Syria such as the case against militia leaders in Congo.30 Notably, the German delegation at a United Nations General Assembly made their commitment to trying universal jurisdiction-based crimes known stating:
Furthermore, the German government has highlighted their hope that the universal jurisdiction-based trials will have “symbolic power” and be “pioneering work” for other states.32 This demonstrates their willingness to be leaders and teach other states how to successfully try universal jurisdiction-based crimes.
In addition to Germany and Sweden, Finland can serve as another informative example of a state that has success trying universal jurisdiction cases. From 2008 to 2017, Finland has had five universal jurisdiction trials.33 Finland has adopted the Finish Criminal Code and the Decree on the Application of Chapter 1, Section 7 of the Criminal Code (Decree) which covers international crimes that fall under their universal jurisdiction.34 The crimes include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and torture, in line with crimes outlined by the Rome Statute. Moreover, the Decree covers modes of liability and temporal application.35 Lastly, they have outlined universal jurisdiction requirements.36 In addition to the Finish Criminal Code, the Criminal Investigation Act outlines investigations and appoints the Head Investigator who works with the Finnish Police of the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI). Furthermore, it outlines the Homicide/Serious Crimes Unit of the NBI oversees the investigations.37 The legal framework and corresponding infrastructure has enabled Finland to successfully try universal jurisdiction cases such as those against Iraqi nationals, Hadi Habeeb Hilal and Jebbar Salman Ammar for war crimes.38 Despite its success, Finland has previously highlighted the need for a more well-defined notion for the principle of universal jurisdiction. In its statement to the U.N. in 2013, Finland noted:
This observation can help to be a guiding point for solution proposals for how the ICC can be a more effective partner.
France is another state that has had a recent history of successful universal jurisdiction-based trials. Of note, from 2008 to 2017 France has had four universal jurisdiction trials.40 In 2010, the French Code of Criminal Procedure was amended to model the Rome Statute.41 It gave French courts universal jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Notably, in addition to the commonly recognized crimes under the Rome Statute, the Code of Criminal Procedure criminalizes enforced disappearance and torture under war crimes and crimes against humanity. While courts were given expanded rights under this Code, France defined the standard for courts to exercise universal jurisdiction, where the standard changes subject to the type of crime committed. Specifically, two frameworks were created:
Furthermore, French law provides the framework for criminal proceedings, allowing them to be brought by either prosecutors or private parties.43 France’s framework has resulted in the capability of trying a range of crimes such and leading structural investigations such as those in Syria.44
While other states discussed above have been informative on demonstrating how implementing laws for universal jurisdiction can be a game changer for success, Spain’s history shows the impact of narrowing laws. Specifically, how amending laws to reduce the universal jurisdiction capacity can be detrimental for trials. While Spain had played a critical role in early implementation of universal jurisdiction cases, amendments in 2009 to their legislation limited Spanish courts’ ability to exercise jurisdiction.45 As a result, there was a dramatic drop in cases tried. This outcome furthers the idea that nations need solid and robust legislation to permit successful universal jurisdiction-based case trials.
III. Proposal for Strengthening ICC Partnership for Universal Jurisdiction
A. Legislation and Infrastructure Commonalities in Successful States
The state examples above are instructive in showing common themes for nations that have been able to successfully exercise universal jurisdiction. Notably, Sweden, Germany, Finland, and France all have adopted legislation that models the Rome Statute. While every state has slight variances in the specifics of the framework, they all enable their respective judiciaries to exercise universal jurisdiction with clear and defined boundaries, outline who can bring cases, and explain other procedures such as appeals and immunities. Additionally, these nations have infrastructure that is set up to handle the investigations of these crimes, such as Sweden’s War Crime unit.
B. Observations from States that Repeatedly Try Cases
In explaining the driving factors for the “quiet” growth of universal jurisdiction, researchers pointed out the impact of institutional learning.46 Institutional learning is a theory that an institution has the “capability” to “learn about, adapt and change” operational strategies and institutional frameworks.47 This can be accomplished through learning by doing, using, or interacting.48 A notable trend based on the data of states who try universal jurisdiction cases is that:
The researchers asserted this pattern correlates to the argument that states that have exercised universal jurisdiction are more likely to exercise it again in the future as a result of the gained “institutional knowledge.”50 Accordingly, it is arguable that legislation, infrastructure, and institutional knowledge form the basis for successfully trying universal jurisdiction-based cases. It can be asserted the ICC could become a more effective partner through orchestrating training other nations that do not yet have the infrastructure or institutional knowledge.
C. Using the Hague
Article 112 of the Rome Statute outlines the requirement for the Assembly of States Parties to meet “as often as necessary, but at least once a year.”51 Every State Party has a single representative in the Assembly. The Assembly provides oversight to the Presidency, the Prosecutor and the Registrar, along with adopting the Rules of Procedure and Evidence and Elements of Crime.52 While Assembly meetings may be held in New York at the U.N. headquarters, they are often held at the Hague, which additionally serves as the ICC headquarters.53 Accordingly, the Assembly of States Parties at the Hague, may pose a unique opportunity for the ICC to make itself a more effective partner to states exercising universal jurisdiction. This could be accomplished through a multi-part approach of teaching, discussion to narrow core principles of universal jurisdiction, and amend Article 90(3) as needed at a Hague Assembly of States Parties.
First, the Hague Assembly of States Parties could be utilized as a training ground for states that need help successfully trying or have not yet tried universal jurisdiction cases. Member states such as those analyzed above could discuss implementation of legal framework to support universal jurisdiction. While each member state would need to develop and implement their own laws for their specific needs, this would at least help guide member states for what may or may not work. Additionally, successful member states could teach what infrastructure is needed to investigate cases, such as crime units. Finally, member states that have tried universal jurisdiction could help walk other states through successful and unsuccessful trials step-by-step. This teaching process could arguably serve as a method of institutional learning, which has been demonstrated to equate to continued success for trying universal jurisdiction-based cases.
Next, during the Assembly, the States parties could work together to discuss and recognize more defined principles of universal jurisdiction. Ideally, this would help address the issues with the overall rule of law capacity, as this was a problem highlighted by Finland above. Though states do not need to adopt the exact same legal framework and understanding of universal jurisdiction principles, having more similar or common understanding would help guide what crimes fall under universal jurisdiction. Further, it could help guide extradition or prosecution of suspected criminal actors.
Lastly, in addition to orchestrating training of member states, the ICC could use these discussions to inform potential amendments to Rome Statute Article 90(3). Member states that have tried universal jurisdiction-based cases are critical in helping to identify what evidence and assistance may be most beneficial for the ICC to provide where available. Ideally, through the process of training other member states, states that have tried crimes could point to instances in which evidence or other assistance may have been dispositive, which could help guide the amendments needed.
IV. Conclusion
The ICC has the unique opportunity to use the expertise of states that have tried universal jurisdiction-based cases to train other states on trying cases. States that are trying universal jurisdiction-based cases can be instrumental in the ICC being a better partner for states trying universal jurisdiction-based cases. Analyzing states that have been previously successful in repeatedly trying cases highlights the need for laws and infrastructure in order to tackle universal jurisdiction-based cases. In addition, researchers have demonstrated that institutional knowledge is a key component for nations trying and continuing to try universal jurisdiction-based cases. The ICC at the States Parties Assembly at the Hague has the opportunity to coordinate and manage training of states that are not yet trying cases or have not successfully tried a case. The ICC could organize state representatives from nations such as Sweden, Germany, Finland, and France to train other nations in their implementation of laws that model the Rome Statute and their respective infrastructures such as appointing head investigators or developing crime units. Additionally, the ICC can use the feedback and training during these meetings to develop ideas on what amendments may be helpful for Rome Statute Article 90(3).
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Article 5, available online. ↩
Anthony D’Amato, The Concept of Human Rights in International Law, 82 Colum. L. Rev. 1110, 1113 (Oct. 1982), paywall, doi. ↩
Anthony J. Colangelo, Universal Jurisdiction as an International “False Conflict” of Laws, 30 Mich. J. Int’l L. 881 (2009), available online. ↩
Restatement (Third) of The Foreign Relations Law of the United States § 402(1)(a) (1987), [hereinafter U.S. Foreign Relations Law Restatement], available online. ↩
Id. § 402(3). ↩
Colangelo, supra note 3, at 887. ↩
Xavier Philippe, The Principles of Universal Jurisdiction and Complementarity: How do the Two Principles Intermesh?, 88 Int’l Rev. Red Cross 377 (Jun. 2006), available online. ↩
U.S. Foreign Relations Law Restatement, supra note 4, at § 404; Leila Nadya Sadat, Redefining Universal Jurisdiction, 35 New Eng. L. Rev. 241, 246 (2001), available online. ↩
International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes, ICC-ASP/1/3, Adopted and Entry into Force 9 September 2002, updated at Kampala, 31 May-11 June 2010 (Jun. 11, 2011), available online. ↩
See, e.g., Máximo Langer, The Archipelago and the Wheel: The Universal Jurisdiction and the International Criminal Court Regimes, in The First Global Prosecutor: Promise and Constraints 204 (Martha Minow, Cora True-Frost & Alex Whiting eds., 2015), available online. ↩
Philippe, supra note 7, at 379. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 1. ↩
Kanishka Kewlani, Three Avenues to Justice for the Rohingya, Bulletin (Feb. 17, 2022), available online.
(In this case, the Rohingya people allegedly suffered persecution at the hands of the Myanmar government. While Myanmar is not a party to the ICC, the ICC authorized the ICC Prosecutor in 2019 to investigate due to the crimes taking place on the boarder of Myanmar-Bangladesh and Bangladesh is a state party. Additionally, in 2019 the Burmese Rohingya Organization UK filed a complaint with the Argentinian national criminal court against Myanmar pursuant to the principle of universal jurisdiction). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 90. ↩
Máximo Langer, Universal Jurisdiction is Not Disappearing: The Shift from “Global Enforcer” to “No Safe Haven” Universal Jurisdiction, 13 J. Int’l Crim. Just., 245 (May 2015), paywall, earlier version, doi. ↩
Máximo Langer & Mackenzie Eason, The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction, 30 EJIL No. 3, 779, 781 (Aug. 2019), available online, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 785. ↩
Id. at 794. ↩
Id. at 787. ↩
Act on Criminal Responsibility for Genocide, Crimes, Against Humanity and War Crimes, SFS 2014:406 (Jun. 11, 2014), available online. ↩
War Crime—Swedish Police Efforts, Polisen, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Syria Justice and Accountability Centre, A Guide to National Prosecutions in Sweden for Crimes Committed in Syria (Sep. 2, 2019), available online. ↩
Id. at 1. ↩
Langer, supra note 15, at 794. ↩
Code of Crimes Against International Law (Germany), Fed. L. Gazette vol. 1 at 2254 (Jun. 26, 2002, as last amended Dec. 22, 2016), available online. ↩
Human Rights Watch, Germany: Conviction for State Torture in Syria (Jan. 13, 2022), available online. ↩
Verdict Based on Principle of Universal Jurisdiction, Deutschland.de (Jan. 14, 2022), available online. ↩
Cristian González Cabrera & Patrick Kroker, A Congo War Crimes Decision: What It Means for Universal Jurisdiction Litigation in Germany and Beyond, Just Security (Jan. 11, 2019), available online. ↩
Statement, Federal Republic of Germany, The Scope and Application of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction U.N. Sixth Committee (Oct. 12, 2022), available online. ↩
Jenny Gesley, FALQs: The Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction in Germany, Lib. Cong. Blogs, § 4 (Jun. 30, 2022), available online. ↩
Langer, supra note 16, at 794. ↩
Criminal Code (Finland), 626/1996, International Offence Ch. 1, § 7, (as amended 2015), available online (trans.); Decree on the Scope of Application of the Criminal Code (Finland), International Offence Ch. 1, § 7 (Aug. 16, 1996), available online. ↩
Open Society Justice Initiative & Trial International, Universal Jurisdiction Law and Practice in Finland (Feb. 2020), available online. ↩
Id. at 12. ↩
Id. ↩
Second Iraqi Fighter Found Guilty of War Crimes in Finland, Radio Free Europe, Mar. 23, 2016, available online. ↩
Statement, Sari Mäkelä, Permanent Mission of Finland, The Scope and Application of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction, U.N. Sixth Committee (Oct. 17, 2013), available online. ↩
Langer, supra note 16, at 794. ↩
Code de Procédure Pénale, Arts. 689–2, 689–13 (in force Mar. 2, 1959) (fr.), available online. ↩
Human Rights Watch, The Legal Framework for Universal Jurisdiction in France (2014), available online. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Langer, supra note 16, at 787. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 792. ↩
Björn Johnson, Institutional Learning, in National Systems of Innovation: Toward a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning 20, 23 (Bengt-Åke Lundvall ed., 2010), paywall, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Langer, supra note 16, at 793. ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 112. ↩
Id.; see also Assembly of States Parties, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Id. ↩
The success of the International Criminal Court (ICC) revolves around its jurisdictional structure and the complementarity component of its legal system and it may very well be quantifiable by how few situations the Court will have to prosecute.1 This is not because of the quixotic belief that the ICC can serve as a better court of law and custodian of world peace and justice, but because of its default statutory jurisdiction which is activated only upon the failure of the domestic criminal courts to prosecute the overlapping crimes against humanity, in a fully and fairly fashion. A quarter of a century later, while the record speaks for itself, it can be asserted that in the last two decades, the domestic judicial systems of the State-parties to the Rome Statute are unable to complement the jurisdictional structure and the complementarity principle of the ICC. Ideally, if the domestic courts were independent and adequately equipped in proportion to the gravity of the crimes committed to secure criminal responsibility, the situations would have been different. Thus, the proposed solution is adopting the principle of universality to further invoke the extraterritorial jurisdiction of the ICC by reason of the principle of complementarity as enshrined under Article 17 of the Rome Statute.2
While there is substantial unclarity surrounding the definition of universal jurisdiction, commentators have narrowed it down to be:
By expanding this definition, two postulations of universal jurisdiction are identifiable. Firstly, this extraterritorial criminal jurisdiction permits the States (including the non-State parties to the Rome Statute) to initiate unilateral investigations, adjudications, and enforcement of laws without territorial relation to the locus of the crime, in the absence of any citizenship interrelatedness of either the victims and/or the perpetrators.4 And secondly, the gravity of the crimes is such that it violates the jus cogens norms due to which all States are voluntarily permitted to exercise unilateral jurisdiction under the principles of universality.5 To further elaborate, the States without prescriptive jurisdiction but under international obligation can prosecute the perpetrators in violation of its laws beyond the frontiers of their State hinged upon any of the three parameters, that is, the laws of the State, international treaty/convention, or for the commission of universally recognized international crimes that pose a significant threat to the international community at large.6
This raises the challenge that how can the domestic courts of the specific State in question that have no traditional delegation of the jurisdiction (fictive or real) initiate criminal proceedings over the crimes on behalf of the ICC. Unlike the definition of universal jurisdiction, the answer to this question is simpler. This is attributable to the principles of complementarity. As per the text of Article 17 of the Rome Statute,7 the ICC is statutorily permitted to initiate investigations and prosecute crimes under international humanitarian law either through ratione loci and/or ratione materiae.8 Despite this, provision of law, there continues to be a plethora of international criminal cases across continents that are beyond the admissibility and the jurisdictions of the ICC either because of its statutory limitations and/or because of logistical and financial feasibility.9 Thus, by the virtue of these inadequacies in relation to the complementarity principle, the ICC can encourage domestic courts to adopt the universality principle and commence criminal proceedings.
Before getting into greater depths of the application of the principle of universality under the regime of the ICC, the author of this comment would like to strongly assert that, this doctrine is one of the most complicated illustrations of a complex international framework hegemonizing the exercise of extra-territorial jurisdiction by the domestic judicial systems.10 Amongst the scholars of the international legal society, it is a common notion that universal jurisdiction especially that of the ICC, is invoked when the crimes committed by State leaders shock the conscience of humanity and it cannot be shunned away and most certainly cannot go unpunished.11 It is thus, an implicit obligation of the domestic criminal courts to hold perpetrators accountable for individual criminal responsibilities. Nonetheless, today’s practicality is nowhere in proximity to this idealism.
While it is not wrong to argue that justice remains undelivered for years to come especially in States where the State leaders are the prime perpetrators who escape criminal accountability by exercising either the principles of sovereignty or the unimpeachable frontiers of domestic jurisdiction.12 This is an incomplete portrayal of the real imagery. There is a good deal of assertions to make this statement. The primary justification is that there are no specific legal principles laid down to activate the universal jurisdiction of the ICC under international criminal and humanitarian law. Over and above that, the type of international crimes committed is not the same and simple as they were two decades ago. Therefore, it is often deliberated whether the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICC while assisting the domestic courts under the complementarity principle while invoking the universal jurisdiction should prosecute only criminal cases or civil cases, or both. Simultaneously, the scope of the authority of the OTP while exercising universal jurisdiction must also be discussed. Furthermore, significant considerations have been given to whether the OTP should invoke universal jurisdiction on crimes that are not ratified under Article 5 of the Rome Statute13 but are internationally recognized as egregious crimes. This comment attempts to analyze and contribute to these postulations eclipsing the applicability of the universal jurisdiction of the ICC.
It is hotly debated by the academic minds of international law that it is toilsome to discern coherent principles concerning establishing universal jurisdiction.14 Despite there is no set of rules that automatically activate the universal jurisdiction over a class of offenses, efforts have been made by scholars to lay down comprehensive requisites for establishing universal jurisdiction. As a matter of general principle, to activate universal jurisdiction, the offense committed must be recognized as an international concern so as to be able to invoke either of the traditional theoretical rationales. The two rationales for universal jurisdiction are (i) the pragmatic rationale and (ii) the humanitarian rationale.15 The crux of the pragmatic rationale is that it “provides a basis for the jurisdiction when jurisdiction is hard to be found.”16 This theoretical rationale for universal jurisdiction is premised on the understanding that universal jurisdiction shall only be able to respond to the danger that neither of the States can and is willing to comply with the requirements of their traditional domestic criminal jurisdiction (such as subject matter jurisdiction of the offense(s) committed or territorial jurisdiction established between the prosecuting State(s) and the perpetrator(s) ).17 Furthermore, on the other hand, as the name suggests, under the humanitarian rationale if the crimes are considered to be unspeakably atrocious and sufficiently damaging to the larger international community, then any State of this community has the right to initiate prosecution proceedings against such crimes.18 This arises from the implicit obligation as members of the international community to ensure that the perpetrators hostis humani generis do not go unpunished while preserving peace and restoring justice.19 This theoretical rationale is free from the restrictions of principles of territoriality and primordially concerns itself with the nature and gravity of the committed crimes. Conceptually speaking, even though the two theoretical rationales seem independent of one another, in practice they are very much intertwined which would be evident while discussing the scope of application of the principle of universality for human trafficking.
Before we discuss the scope of applicability of the principle of universality for crimes that are not specified under the Rome Statute, it is crucial to deliberate upon whether this principle, when invoked by the OTP, should apply only to international criminal offenses or can the same rationale also be extended to international civil offenses? In order to extend the extraterritorial jurisdiction of the ICC, it is pivotal to establish that the varied types of international civil offenses satisfy the two traditional theoretical rationales mentioned above. The territorial jurisdiction for a majority of international civil offenses is generally easily established owing to where the contract was signed or where the transaction was completed, thereby satisfying the pragmatic theoretical rationale. However, on the offset, there may be some international civil offenses where establishing such jurisdiction may be complicated. To illustrate better, several jurisdictions of domestic courts of different States can be involved in offshore white-collar crimes or money laundering transactions wherein narrowing down the primary territorial jurisdiction of a domestic court of the law becomes laborious. As a result of which the pragmatic theoretical rationale may not be satisfied. Thereby, in such situations, it is rudimentary to also satisfy the elements of the humanitarian theoretical rationale. As per the language of this rationale, the particular international offense should be at odds with the fundamentals of the jus cogens norms while being of such gravity that it can shock the conscience of humanity while creating an obligation over the States to take legal actions.20 The same seems like an overestimation for international civil offenses, which is why the international civil offenses do not satisfy the two suggested theoretical rationales necessary to establish extraterritorial jurisdiction of the ICC under the principle of universality, in its entirety. Henceforth, it is advisable that the OTP should solely focus on applying universal jurisdiction to international criminal offenses and not international civil offenses.
Now that it has been laid down that the focus of the OTP should be limited to only crimes under international humanitarian law, the next question surfacing is whether the OTP should inculcate crimes that are not enshrined under Article 5 of the Rome Statute21 and extend its expertise and resources to such crimes under the universality principle? The answer to this hypothesis is positive. For this hypothesis, this comment only discusses one such international crime that is not a part of the Rome Statute but is very much a global concern against humanity, that is, human trafficking. In this section of the comment, the author addresses the preliminary questions of is universal jurisdiction over non-Rome Statute crimes such as human trafficking necessary under the pragmatic rationale. And is human trafficking a sufficiently dangerous crime that concerns all of humanity? Thus, whether universal jurisdiction can be extended to human trafficking?
Modern slavery has been a global concern for nearly a century now, especially crimes such as human trafficking wherein States have been unable to comply with their judicial obligations. But this is attributable to a multitude of reasons because of which either human traffickers have not been prosecuted or the victims have not received any kind of reparations. One such reason is States that are crippled by the terror and/or bribes of organized human trafficking groups due to which the national judiciary of such States is unable to enforce laws against human trafficking.22 Taking advantage of the inability and unwillingness of such States to prosecute, organized groups continue to take advantage of these incapacities and operate internationally. Another common reason is the ineffective extradition treaties between such a State where the human trafficker groups operate from and the State that wishes to initiate prosecution proceedings. Lastly, States that can prosecute are unable to owe to the lack of jurisdictional connections or because human traffickers are captured on high seas wherein no State can prosecute them. As a result of which, an abhorrent crime such as human trafficking is outside the realm of international criminal law and far beyond the prosecutor’s reach of the ICC.
Having said that, extending the application of extraterritorial jurisdiction of the ICC under the principle of universality by virtue of the principle of complementarity may become the efficacious solution to the concerns of human trafficking. The nature and gravity of human trafficking are such that the two theoretical rationales that are pragmatic rationale and humanitarian rationale are well satisfied. Since the universal jurisdiction can be extended to human trafficking, it will authorize domestic courts of States to initiate investigations and prosecute perpetrators of human trafficking which earlier was impossible. Even though it is amply evident that under pragmatic reasons States have a way to prosecute crimes related to human trafficking under the principle of universality, it is still not evident if there is an urgent need to do the same, leading us to believe that universal jurisdiction may only be exercised in the rarest of the rare situations.23 To avoid this, it is required to transform the theories of application of principles of universality for human trafficking into reality with the assistance of the OTP.
This portion of this comment analyzes the debate between the supporters and critics of universal jurisdiction about when invoked by the ICC would be the right approach for prosecuting four core crimes beyond the statutory jurisdiction of the Court. Followed by determining the scope of authority of the OTP while extending its resources and skills to domestic courts by virtue of the principles of complementarity to assist domestic courts in effective and regular internal prosecutions in eliminating atrocities related to human trafficking.24
One of the bigger threats to successful commitment to universal jurisdiction is how the same is to be applied and upheld. Unlike the principle of complementarity, there are no clear steps or hierarchy to initiate investigations and prosecute perpetrators, first at the domestic courts of the State and upon its failure, second at the ICC. This leads to unprecedented discretion with the States opting for universal jurisdiction qualifying them “to prosecute international crimes independently from any link to their territory or nation.”25 As a result of this, multiple States may end up ascertaining territorial or subject-matter jurisdiction over the same case, infringing sovereignty and other principles of rule of law. Therefore, supporters of universal jurisdiction have mapped out a solution against the same “the priority of prosecution should be given to the states having a direct link to the crimes due to the territoriality or nationality of the perpetrator.”26 It is advisable that the vertical complementarity of the ICC and the State parties should be converted into horizontal complementarity, to enhance the coherent execution of the principle of universal jurisdiction.27 At the same time, as suggested by the supporters of universal jurisdiction, this does not prohibit bystander States who have no connection to the crime from exercising universal jurisdiction, however, this can only be invoked through universal jurisdiction when the nexus State is unable and/or unwilling to fulfill its judicial obligations.28 This amalgamation of the principle of complementarity with the principle of universality can be invoked against cases of human trafficking, allowing the OTP to bring such heinous cases under its jurisdiction.
On a similar note, the supporters argue that while being able to exercise universal jurisdiction, the ICC will also be able to investigate and prosecute state or quasi-state offenders who in the current regime escape criminal responsibility.29 This would most certainly be handy in holding such mid-level perpetrators of human trafficking accountable at the domestic as well as international level. Nonetheless, this will not be practical without cooperation between no nexus States, bystander States, and the incumbent official’s State of nationality. It is primordial to have harmonious cooperation between these States that are unable/unwilling to prosecute and the forum State to initiate preliminary investigations, assistance with evidence, compiling information and data, etc. to be able to fairly initiate proceedings.30 These modalities of inter-State judicial assistance can be brought forward for cases dealing with atrocities of human trafficking with the aid and encouragement of the OTP who shall overlook the responsibilities of such national proceedings to achieve the goal of narrowing the impunity gap.
However, there may be occasions wherein these States do not cooperate, thereby jeopardizing investigations and judicial proceedings. In such scenarios, what is the role of the OTP? Two solutions have been proposed in this regard. Above and all, the ICC must make a judicial determination where in the first scenario, it refers this to the Assembly of States Parties or the U.N. Security Council.31 And in the second scenario, it makes no such judicial determination is made, but there is sufficient reasonable belief of incoming non-cooperation that requires urgent attention of the Assembly of States Parties or the U.N. Security Council.32 Therefore, the normative procedures established by the Assembly of States Parties can be used as a point of reference by the ICC to develop an effective and efficient mechanism for promoting as well as preserving inter-state cooperation which could be extended to cases of human trafficking.
On the contrary, the debate, the critics of universal jurisdiction have a lot to offer to the debate against the intentions of the ICC in exercising universal jurisdiction for crimes enlisted within and beyond the Rome Statute. Some of the predictable arguments against universal jurisdiction are that it poses a strenuous impact on the limited funding of the ICC, interruptions, and possible impairment of political solutions to systemic violence, hostilities in international relations, etc. On the same note, the critics also ardently opine that the execution of universal jurisdiction is much possible only through the aid and assistance of human rights organizations in the domestic constituencies especially surrounding heinous crimes under human trafficking.33 Unlike the supporters of universal jurisdiction, the critics of universal jurisdiction, are not astray from the political considerations that this form of extra-territorial jurisdiction brings forward. To further elaborate, the majority of the mass atrocities are committed by the sovereign heads of State, thereby creating diplomatic pressure on forum States, potential reprisals from bystander States, and compulsion to offer immunities to incumbent quasi-state and/or state officials.34 Thus, the incentive to engage in trials of high-cost officials is extremely low, as the case may be for organized crime lords participating in activities towards human trafficking.
The same argument, however, does not extend to low-cost and mid-cost officials of States where neither the political branch nor the domestic judicial institution of the official’s State of nationality is hesitant in opening formal proceedings to escort such prosecutions to trial through universal jurisdiction.35 This is because such low-cost even mid-cost incumbent officials pose little to no economic cost of trials as well as the metaphorical cost of international relations.36 Whereas, if the universal jurisdiction regime were to extend to high-cost officials, the international relations costs would be much higher inherently creating hostilities with other States. Thus, the incentives of political branches to apply universal jurisdiction to low-cost as well as mid-cost officials, supersede the overall disincentives towards universal jurisdiction.
While it may seem like there are greater demerits to invoking extra-territorial jurisdiction of the ICC by reason of the principle of universality, however, the same would be an incorrect postulation. With more States exercising universal jurisdiction, there are multiple avenues through which the OTP can make themselves an effective partner of regional judicial institutions pursuant to Article 90(3) of the Rome Statute,37 which could also be extended to crimes beyond the jurisdiction of the ICC such as human trafficking.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Louise Arbour, Will the ICC Have an Impact on Universal Jurisdiction?, 1 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 585, 585 (2003), paywall doi. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 17, available online. ↩
Allyson Bennett, That Sinking Feeling: Stateless Ships, Universal Jurisdiction, and the Drug Trafficking Vessel Interdiction Act, 37 Yale J. Int’l L. 433, 433 (2012), available online. ↩
John Reynolds, Universal Jurisdiction to Prosecute Human Trafficking: Analyzing the Practical Impact of a Jurisdictional Change in Federal Law, 34 Hastings Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 387, 392 (2011), available online. ↩
Nicolaos Strapatsas, Universal Jurisdiction and the International Criminal Court, 29 MLJ 1, 3 (2002), available as download. ↩
Reynolds, supra note 3, at 391. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 2. ↩
Id. ↩
Cedric Ryngaert, Universal Jurisdiction in an ICC Era, 14 Eur. J. Crim., Crim. L. & Crim. Just. 46, 49 (2006), paywall. ↩
A. Hays Butler, The Doctrine of Universal Jurisdiction: A Review of the Literature, 11 Crim. L. Forum 353, 354 (2000), paywall, doi. ↩
Shuvra Dey, Universal Jurisdiction and Cooperation between ICC Member States in Prosecuting Nationals of non-Member States, 3 Trento Student L. Rev. 61, 63 (2021), available online. ↩
Henry A. Kissinger, The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction, 80 Foreign Aff. 86, 86 (Jul. 2001), paywall, archived. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 2, at Art. 5. ↩
Anne H. Geraghty, Universal Jurisdiction and Drug Trafficking: A Tool for Fighting One of the World’s Most Pervasive Problems, 16 Fla. J. Int’l L. 371, 379 (2004), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 380. ↩
Id. ↩
Butler, supra note 10, at 356. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 2, at Art. 5. ↩
Geraghty, supra note 14, at 387. ↩
Id. at 389. ↩
Juan Carlos Sainz-Borgo, The International Criminal Court, Drug Trafficking and Crimes against Humanity: A Local Interpretation of the Rome Statute, 15 J. Juris. 373, 379 (2012), available online. ↩
Dey, supra note 11, at 69. ↩
Id. at 70. ↩
Id. at 71. ↩
Id. at 72. ↩
Harmen van der Wilt, Universal Jurisdiction under Attack: An Assessment of African Misgivings towards International Criminal Justice as Administered by Western States, 9 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1043, 1054 (2011), available online, doi. ↩
Dey, supra note 11, at 67. ↩
Id. at 82. ↩
Id. at 83. ↩
Máximo Langer, The Diplomacy of Universal Jurisdiction: The Political Branches and the Transnational Prosecution of International Crimes, 105 Am. J. Int’l L. 1, 1–6 (Jan. 2011), online, earlier version, doi. ↩
Id. at 5. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Id. at 3. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 2, at Art. 90(3). ↩
A Win-Win Situation: Cooperation Between the International Criminal Court and Regional Organizations
I. Introduction
This comment addresses the challenges that the International Criminal Court (ICC) faces in today’s rapidly changing world. Some people are disappointed that only a few perpetrators have been tried by the ICC, and that the vast majority have so far escaped consequences for their crimes. Some countries are concerning the ICC will interfere their internal affairs as well as their national sovereignties.
However, cooperating with regional organizations may be a proper solution to these problems. Regional organizations have a better understanding of local governments and people, as well as local problem-solving approaches and political situations, and can promote peaceful solutions to problems before large-scale conflicts occur. If regional organizations can resolve regional conflicts by a more peaceful means, thereby reducing the likelihood of mass atrocities, then they can help the work of international criminal tribunals in their role of preventing mass crimes. And, with fewer procedural constraints than the ICC, regional organizations may be more efficient than the ICC in resolving local problems.
This comment argues four aspects that the ICC can cooperate with regional organization. First is the ICC can use their extensive influence in the international community to facilitate or even help them to find sponsor to the work of regional organizations. Second, the ICC could send some of their experts to regional organizations to give them some training courses both in how to work legally in local issues and how to draft internal regulations. Third, the ICC can consult with regional organizations on how to publicize, in what form, and with what content to achieve the best results, in order to develop the most effective and targeted means of publicizing in a region. Last but not least, an information linkage mechanism could be established between regional organizations and the ICC.
II. A New Challenge of Today
The international community of the Second World War has put in place many international and regional mechanisms for the protection of human rights, but millions of people still fall victim to genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes of aggression. It is shameful that only a few of the perpetrators were finally trialed by international court, and the vast majority of them have escaped the consequences of their punishment to this day. Some commit their crimes with the full knowledge that there is only a small chance that they will be brought to justice. An the ICC would serve several purposes: to deter those who are prepared to commit or carry out serious crimes under international law; to enable national prosecutors, who have a fundamental responsibility to prosecute perpetrators, to carry out their duties; to bring truth and justice to victims and their families as a first step toward healing; to assist victims and their families in obtaining reparations; and to assist victims and their families in obtaining reparations when those in control of the state apparatus are unable or unwilling to ensure that human rights abusers are duly punished. When the groups in control of the state apparatus are unable or unwilling to ensure that the perpetrators of human rights violations are duly punished, mechanisms representing international justice must step in.
However, the ICC is now facing many challenges. Today, when we are looking at statistics of the ICC, we can’t help feeling a little bit disappointed that things did not go as well as we expected. It took International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia nearly twenty-five years and about $3 billion to try more than one hundred defendants.1 Trials in all of these tribunals have moved very slowly, taking years from arraignment to appeal. In some cases, delays in justice have turned into denials of justice.
Beside these slow trial procedures, there are many countries withdrawing the ICC in these years. On November 16, 2016, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed an order announcing his withdrawal from the ICC in The Hague, the Netherlands. According to RIA Novosti, Russian President Vladimir Putin has instructed the relevant ministries to inform the U.N. Secretary-General that Russia does not intend to become a member of the Rome Statute of the ICC.2 The U.S. initially signed the Rome Statute under the Clinton administration but later withdrew, under the leadership of George W. Bush. Sudan and Israel have also withdrawn their signatures in the past, while other nations—including China and India—have rejected membership outright.
In this case, the ICC need to work harder to achieve its goal of combating serious crimes and upholding justice and fairness. Cooperating with regional organizations can be a proper solution to this challenge we are facing today. However, the ICC has been working hard to accomplish its original goals, and despite pressure from all sides and often without sufficient understanding and support from the international community or even local people, the ICC has persevered in bringing the concept of fairness and justice to the world.
III. Regional Organizations in Solving Regional Conflicts
Peace and security are the eternal pursuit of human society, and there has been a long-standing dispute between globalism and regionalism on the issue of peace and security. After World War II, the political elites of the victorious countries established a collective security system centered on the U.N. Security Council, but with the changes in the international situation after the Cold War, the trend of regionalization of security emerged. In the post-Cold War period, especially in the last decade, regionalization of security is becoming an important feature of the new international security order, and the status and role of regions in the global security architecture is becoming increasingly prominent. Some scholars argue that regionalization, as the only intermediate channel between the state and globalization, can unify most social forces and serve as a buffer zone and medium between nation-states and the international community.3
Since February 2011, the Libyan conflict in North Africa has become the focus of international attention in recent years. The weak border defense between Libya and its neighbors, as well as the inextricable links between ideological and ethnic issues, have quickly turned the conflict into a regional event, and the situation in North Africa continues to be volatile. In terms of the consequences of conflict, the issue of human security in the African region is prominent, and in all conflicts, we see tragic scenes of displacement of innocent civilians, rampant disease, and massive population loss. In Congo, for example, the number of deaths directly or indirectly caused by conflict has exceeded the number of British deaths in World War I and World War II combined, while in the Darfur region of Sudan, nearly two million people have been displaced by civil conflict.4
However, despite being at the weakest link in the global security chain in the post-Cold War African region, the external support it can receive from the international community does not match its security needs. There are some reasons that caused this situation. First, in the face of the new security situation, the United Nations hopes that regional forces will share more and “undertake” the responsibility and obligation to maintain peace and security in the region. Second, the U.N. has shown a tendency to be selective in resolving regional conflicts.5 Third, major Western countries have adjusted their security policies toward the African region. The post-Cold War U.S. approach to regional security in Africa manifested itself in the need for Africa to assume its own responsibilities, and based on this purpose, the U.S. encouraged regional organizations to play a role in maintaining regional security.6
Under the influence of the above factors, external forces have been absent from security governance in the African region, which in turn has pushed African countries to seek to form mechanisms to maintain security at the regional level to bridge the gap between reality and needs. African countries have also begun to show more recognition of the involvement and role of their own regional organizations. In 2003, for example, the Sudanese government opposed the presence of international actors other than the African Union in Darfur, fearing that it would infringe on its sovereignty. It was only through the good offices of the international community that Sudan agreed to send a hybrid U.N.–AU peacekeeping force to Darfur. Similarly, in the 2002 conflict between the Sudanese government and Southern opposition forces, the parties to the conflict also saw the East African Intergovernmental Authority on Development as a more appropriate actor to play a central role.
At the same time, regional organizations have some natural advantages in resolving conflicts in the region. For example, African regional organizations are located in the region and know the region better; they are the first to feel the impact of regional conflicts and have more urgent political will to respond quickly to conflict events; they intervene in regional conflicts with a more moderate action posture, which is more acceptable to the parties to the conflict. The relatively poor governance capacity of most African governments makes it easy for an internal conflict to spread into a regional threat, and regional organizations try to remedy and resolve this dilemma to some extent. All of these reasons make regional organizations uniquely positioned to play a role in regional conflict resolution actions that other international actors cannot.7
If regional organizations can resolve regional conflicts by a more peaceful means, thereby reducing the likelihood of mass atrocities, then they can help the work of international criminal tribunals in their role of preventing mass crimes.
IV. Cooperation Between the ICC and Regional Organization
If the ICC can enter into cooperative relationships with regional organizations and sign cooperation agreements, a win-win situation can be achieved. Compared with regional organizations, international criminal tribunals have broader influence and appeal at the international level; and regional organizations also have local mediation capacity that international criminal tribunals cannot have. For example, regional organizations can effectively break the time limit of international criminal tribunals by solving problems at the local level. International criminal tribunals need to follow procedural justice, but procedural justice also sacrifices efficiency to a certain extent. Regional organizations, on the other hand, do not need to be subject to too many procedural restrictions because they are not court trials, and they can be more flexible in solving problems locally.
Take African Union Mission in Burundi as an example, prior to the withdrawal of the AU Mission in Burundi (AMIB) from the mission area in 2004, a stabilization posture had been effectively maintained over 95% of Burundi’s territory, facilitating access for humanitarian relief supplies, and providing protection for the return of specially designated leaders. It can be said that AMIB has succeeded to some extent in ensuring the “political and economic security” of Burundi. And the stabilization of the situation in Burundi paved the way for the UN’s intervention, and the U.N. peacekeeping force in Burundi replaced AMIB in June 2004 to carry out the peacekeeping mission.8 This case clearly demonstrate that African regional organizations are uniquely positioned and can play a positive role in maintaining regional peace and security. Their familiarity with the region and their ability to respond quickly make them an “advance guard” in maintaining regional peace and security, but limited by their lack of resources and capacity, they often also need the support and assistance of the U.N. and Western powers.
The most obvious difficulties for regional organizations in carrying out their actions are their lack of capacity and resources. The African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and other African regional organizations generally face a lack of resources problem, with the AU mission in Sudan, the ECOWAS operations in Liberia, and in Sierra Leone eventually being taken over by the United Nations. In the case of the AU, for example, about one-fifth to one-quarter of member states are unable to meet their financial obligations to the AU, forcing the AU to rely more on external assistance and raising questions about the sustainability and ownership of the AU operations.9 The dilemma regional organizations are facing is where the ICC can actively engage and make some difference. While not necessarily in a position to support the work of regional organizations with their own funds, the ICC can use their extensive influence in the international community to facilitate or even help them to find sponsor to the work of regional organizations.
Second, the deep-rooted issues in the actions of regional organizations are then the basis for the legitimacy of actions within the framework of the organization. Regional organizations are an effective option for maintaining regional peace and security and can play a positive role in using local approaches to solve local problems. However, regional organizations also face a double dilemma in terms of reality and international law when establishing regional collective security mechanisms based on the concept of regionalization of security to cope with the conflict-ridden security situation. It is regulated in Constitutive Act of The African Union that:
It is clear that this provision draws on the relevant provisions of the Rome Statute, thus demonstrating the influence of international criminal tribunals on the legitimacy of regional organizations. It is understandable that regional organizations, with limited human and financial resources, often do not have the same number of legal and international political talents as the ICC, and therefore need the help of the ICC in drafting constitutional charters, establishing working regulations and ensuring the legitimacy of their work. It is practical that the ICC could send some of their experts to regional organizations to give them some training courses both in how to work legally in local issues and how to draft internal regulations.
Publicity is also another important part in cooperation between the ICC and regional organization. If cooperation can be reached with the ICC, in a way it means that a regional organization is recognized at the international level. And the ICC has also been committed to extending the concept of human rights, fairness, and justice to all regions. At a regional level, the ICC is likely to be less well known and recognized than a regional organization that is widely recognized within a region. The ICC can consult with regional organizations on how to publicize, in what form, and with what content to achieve the best results, in order to develop the most effective and targeted means of publicizing in a region. With their knowledge and experience in local community, regional organization can be a wonderful partner as well as counselor in publicity.
In addition, an information linkage mechanism could be established between regional organizations and the ICC, with regular communication and exchange of information between the two sides. In today’s international community, information is a very valuable resource. If the ICC can reach information cooperation with regional organizations, they can obtain timely information about the local political situation, armed conflicts, and even information about the defendants at the prosecution stage. The ICC can also share their understanding of the international political situation with regional organizations in a timely manner and use it to bring about the linkage and cooperation of more regional organizations. In this way, regional organizations have become information suppliers to the ICC, and the ICC has become a hub of information for many regional organizations. The ICC could even use this information advantage to hold regular meetings of regional organizations, not necessarily offline, but also online, to further promote inter-regional communication and conflict resolution.
V. Conclusion
Facing challenges today, the ICC should actively seek cooperation with regional organizations. There are four aspects for the ICC to seek cooperation with regional organizations, which is international criminal help regional organizations to find sponsors, the ICC send some of their experts to regional organizations to give them some training courses, the ICC and regional organizations help each other to publicize, establish information linkage mechanism between regional organizations and the ICC. Both parties should actively sign a cooperation agreement to define these details in order to seek long-term stable cooperation.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Marieke Irma Wierda, The Local Impact of a Global Court: Assessing the Impact of the International Criminal Court in Situation Countries, 90 (Jan. 9, 2019) (Ph.D. dissertation, Leiden Law School), available online. ↩
Russia Withdraws from International Criminal Court Treaty, BBC News, Nov. 16, 2016, available online. ↩
Zaki Laidi, A World Without Meaning: The Crisis of Meaning, in International Politics 140 (Sep. 14, 1998), available online, doi. ↩
See Selim Jahan, United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2015: Work for Human Development (2015), available online. ↩
See Martti Koskenniemi, The Place of Law in Collective Security, 17 Mich. J. Int’l L. 455 (1996), available online. ↩
International Relations Subcommittee on Africa, African Crisis Response Initiative: A Security Building Block, H.R. No. 107–20, 107th Congress (Jul. 12, 2001), available online. ↩
Jane Boulden, Introduction, in Dealing with Conflict in Africa: The United Nations and Regional Organizations 3 (Jane Boulden ed., 2015), paywall, doi. ↩
Festus Agoagye, The African Mission in Burundi: Lessons Learned from the First AU Peacekeeping Operation, ISS 9, 14 (Aug. 26, 2004), available as download. ↩
The African Peace and Security Architecture, AU, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Regional Complementarity: Mutually Beneficial Collaboration between Regional Courts and the ICC
I. Introduction
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a unique forum for international justice, as the only international court charged with prosecuting individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.1 Despite its unique place in international justice, the Court has long faced criticism, ranging from inefficiency in accomplishing its goals, to biased prosecutions. The Court’s pursuit of justice has largely been based on Western values, and it has disproportionately targeted African nations in its prosecutions.2
Regional courts such as the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Court, and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights also attempt to ensure international justice, albeit through different means. While not charged with pursuing individual criminal responsibility, these courts attempt to end global impunity through a variety of methods, mostly targeted at state actors. As the ICC faces a large caseload and struggles to secure prosecutions, regional courts present a valuable opportunity for mutually beneficial collaboration in pursuing the goals of international justice.
The ICC was formed with the intention of serving as a complementary court, meaning it would only step in to prosecute when national jurisdictions could not or would not pursue prosecutions on their own.3 Under the principle of complementarity, the ICC does not investigate or prosecute matters where justice is being genuinely pursued in a national court.4 This comment argues that regional courts can satisfy the statutory meaning of complementarity under the Rome Statute, serving as a form of regional complementarity.5
With regional complementarity, international justice has the potential to be more intersectional, effective, and balanced. The ICC can benefit regional courts and organizations through a more relational approach to the principle of complementarity, and regional courts have equal wisdom to offer the ICC. Using the concept of proactive regional complementarity to frame the relationship between the ICC and regional courts, this comment argues that a collaborative approach to complementarity could benefit both the ICC, regional courts, and international justice more broadly.
In Part II, I provide a brief background on the ICC and the meaning of complementarity within the Rome Statute and present various arguments under which regional courts can satisfy the statutory meaning of complementarity. In Part III, I frame the concept of proactive regional complementarity and the benefits this relationship can provide to both the ICC and regional organizations alike. In Part IV, I use the Inter-American Human Rights System as an example to explore the differences between international justice at the regional level and the international level, with a focus on the benefits of collaboration. For the purpose of this comment, the Inter-American Human Rights System includes both the Inter-American Court and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Finally, I conclude by proposing a formal agreement for the ICC to share responsibilities through regional complementarity.
II. The ICC, the Rome Statute, and Principle of Complementarity
The ICC was created as a complementary court, which aims to “complement, not replace, national Courts.”6 This founding principle is highlighted in the Preamble of the Rome Statute and in Article 1.7 The principle of complementarity also guides the admissibility of cases facing the Court as outlined in Article 17 of the Rome Statute.8 Article 17 provides that a case is inadmissible where it is being:
A case is also inadmissible where a State with jurisdiction over it “has decided not to prosecute,” unless that decision results from unwillingness or inability.10 Finally, cases are inadmissible where the case is not of “sufficient gravity to justify further action.”11 Even beyond these provisions, Article 53 provides that the Prosecutor may decide to not initiate an investigation where there are “substantial reasons to believe that an investigation would not serve the interests of justice.”12 Given these bases for deciding to forgo an investigation or prosecution, the ICC Prosecutor has various options to defer to authorities besides the ICC.
Regional organizations, and particularly regional courts, can and should satisfy the requirements outlined under Article 17. There are various arguments to support this notion.
First, it has been argued that using a purposive approach to interpret the Rome Statute, considering the normative message that arises from the treaty text, the ICC is most fundamentally a court of “last resort” which maintains the primacy of state sovereignty.13 This approach provides that complementarity is meant to limit the involvement of the ICC and encourage states or regional groups of states to prosecute grave international crimes.14 Using this logic, regional courts should be respected as valid prosecutions under the principle of complementarity as long as they are genuine and effective. This approach requires regional courts and the ICC to be cooperative and provide mutual assistance as they would likely have potentially competing mandates.15
Another argument for regional complementarity arises from interpreting the Rome Statute in terms of Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.16 This approach emphasizes interpretation in light of the object and purpose of the Rome Statute and similarly finds that complementarity is rooted in state sovereignty and a restrained role for the ICC as a “court of last resort.”17 Additionally, when criminal prosecutions reach a regional tribunal, states who are party to the tribunal typically delegate their national criminal jurisdiction to the regional tribunal.18 This type of delegation is permissible under international law and leads to the situation being genuinely investigated according to the wishes of a sovereign state.19 Using this logic, a valid prosecution by a regional tribunal should be upheld under the principle of complementarity.20
A potential difficulty in the principle of regional complementarity is that regional courts as they exist today are not empowered to prosecute individuals for international crimes, and this could conflict with the Rome Statute’s requirement of a genuine investigation or prosecution. However, the ICC has been heavily criticized for its Western emphasis on individual criminal punishment.21 Regional courts may not pursue individual prosecutions, but they have a multitude of other approaches to ensuring justice and accountability for the same grievous crimes.22 These courts primarily hear cases against states which violate human rights rather than individuals, but the benefits they reap are aligned with the goals of international justice and ending impunity for grave international crimes.23
Regional courts often focus more on policy, collaboration with civil society, and social movements in order to secure justice.24 The European Court of Human Rights has a broad range of remedies, including ordering damages and general measures to repeat recurrence of crimes such as building new detention centers and overseeing ethics commissions.25 The Inter-American Human Rights System influences domestic authorities to implement policies to account for grave international crimes and advance institutional reforms to prevent recurrence.26 These methods were even leveraged to advance national criminal prosecutions, state-sponsored truth commissions, and constitutional reforms.27
Complementarity is meant to respect the sovereignty of states who choose to carry out justice in their own systems. The value of regional courts is well-established, and in fact, it has been shown that these courts are more efficient in preventing and accounting for mass atrocities, given their budget, than the ICC.28 The ICC could benefit from a broader idea of what entails a genuine investigation or even a genuine form of justice for these grave crimes.29 Furthermore, this broader approach to accepted forms of genuine justice is permissible in the Rome Statute. Under Article 53, the Prosecutor could decide that an investigation or prosecution would not serve the interests of justice because there is already a genuine form of justice being reached through a regional court.30 There is no universal definition of what “justice” means in this context, and the ICC could benefit from a more diverse definition of international justice.31
In fact, in embracing a more comprehensive approach to complementarity, the ICC could provide space for longer-lasting, more effective forms of justice, and increase its own legitimacy in the process. Non-western, traditional, restorative, indigenous, and other justice mechanisms could be employed at various levels of international justice through a broader understanding of complementarity or in the interests of justice under Article 53.32 Trials are not the only solution to mass atrocities, and when the affected communities choose alternative justice mechanisms, whether in national courts or regional courts, the ICC should empower and encourage those communities to pursue justice in a way that is meaningful to them.33 The ICC’s limited approach to individual criminal prosecutions in the context of mass atrocities leaves many victims whose crimes are not prosecuted.34 By investing in local communities and allowing broader forms of justice to qualify as genuine justice mechanisms, the ICC could more adequately address the harms of all victims involved in crimes.
Finally, regional complementarity could also be ensured by amending the Rome Statute to explicitly include regional courts as part of the principle of complementarity. Kenya has proposed this method, but amendments to the Rome Statute are challenging and this outcome is unlikely.35
III. Framing Proactive Regional Complementarity
Literature has attempted to frame the principle of complementarity in a variety of ways from positive complementarity to radical complementarity to proactive complementarity.36 This comment combines aspects of Burke-White’s “proactive complementarity” and Sarah Nimigan’s conception of “regional complementarity” to frame a potential relationship between the ICC and regional courts.37
This proposed conception of regional complementarity emphasizes not only that regional courts can satisfy complementarity, but that the relationship should be based on cooperation at national, regional, and international levels.38 Mutual assistance between courts at all levels would build capacity for various institutions that can become stronger players in international justice. This will also alleviate some of the burden off of the ICC so that justice can be pursued in a broader range of forums, each with unique strengths. This is similar to proactive complementarity in that the ICC could participate more directly to encourage prosecution of international crimes, particularly through collaboration and mutual assistance, such as the exchange of evidence.39
A key component of this form of regional complementarity is its encouragement of a more fruitful distribution of prosecutorial roles. Nimigan suggests that ideally, national jurisdictions would investigate and prosecute foot soldiers, regional jurisdictions would pursue rebel leaders, military commanders or intermediaries, and the ICC would prosecute heads of state and government officials.40
There are a multitude of benefits to this distribution of power, foremost being a more holistic approach to criminal justice. There are jurisdictional benefits in that the ICC would primarily be tasked with heads of state and high-level officials, who don’t receive immunity at the ICC.41 Additionally, these roles serve the interests of capacity for these differing institutions, as the distribution of caseload would free up the ICC to focus on the most culpable. Meanwhile, regional and national courts could deal with larger caseloads of lower-profile cases.
This arrangement also serves the benefits of justice as national jurisdictions would focus on foot soldiers, who typically commit the most direct and localized forms of violence perpetrated against victims.42 The ability to gather evidence on the ground would be substantially easier for domestic jurisdictions, and victims would be able to face their perpetrators. This in turn would create greater prospects for transition and stability following mass atrocity.43 Spreading the potential avenues of justice could also help counter accusations of bias against the ICC.
This notion of complementarity is “more relational than vertical/hierarchical” as each judicial mechanism is interdependent and strengthens the other if effective coordination is implemented.44 International, regional, and national systems would share a commitment to cooperative international criminal justice rather than any having primacy over the other. This comment proposes that these roles can expand beyond the narrow definitions of investigation and prosecution and encompass more broad definitions of pursuing justice.45 As regional courts and organizations encompass a broader approach to ensuring international criminal justice than just individual prosecution, proactive regional complementarity should allow for different justice methods to serve the requirement of a genuine proceeding.
IV. The Inter-American Human Rights System
The Inter-American Human Rights System, encompassing both the Inter-American Court and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, provides a valuable example of the broader definitions of justice that could fit into proactive regional complementarity.
The Inter-American System has been described as quasi-criminal, as it holds states accountable for crimes despite not officially being a criminal court.46 The Inter-American Court is uniquely skilled at leveraging its competencies to advance state prosecutions.47 The Court also monitors states’ implementations of its orders through mandatory hearings and compliance reports.48 However, beyond these functions, the Inter-American Court also advances truth commissions, reparations programs, sites of historical memory, and various measures to facilitate truth-telling, accountability, and the prevention of mass atrocities.49
The Inter-American Commission for Human Rights is more deferential to states, but fosters local processes of justice.50 The rights body entrusts local justice systems with retributive justice, while also maintaining restorative justice and victim-centered remedies.51 In this way, the Inter-American Human Rights System presents a more cohesive approach to justice, with a greater emphasis on justice for victims and repairing the social fabric of communities following mass atrocities. The ICC could learn from this approach, as its focus on individual criminal responsibility does little to repair the damage done to entire communities in conflict zones.
The efficacy of this system is evidenced by the impacts of the Inter-American Court as compared to the ICC. Regional tribunals have been more effective than international criminal tribunals in securing accountability for mass atrocities.52 In fact, the sentences influenced by the Inter-American Court have been nearly as significant as the ICC, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda combined.53 Pursuant to Court decrees, states have:
This is particularly poignant, given that the ICC’s budget vastly exceeds those of all regional institutions, and the ICC cost about thirty-three times as much as the Inter-American Court between 2011 and 2018.55
Regional courts such as the Inter-American Court are partially more cost-effective because they are more closely connected to the surrounding states they serve.56 Local investigators and prosecutors may speak the necessary languages and understand the complex contexts of the surrounding communities’ culture, politics, and social fabric.57 This connection to the region accumulates less financial burden than the ICC faces in hiring experts, but it also creates a more accurate perception of how atrocities occurred given the particular unique contexts of the territory they occurred in. This also combats much of the criticism the ICC faces in imposing Western ideals of justice on societies with different approaches to criminal justice.
The ICC’s role in Colombia’s peace negotiations is evidence of the potential benefits of a broader, more collaborative approach to regional complementarity. The ICC kept the Court’s examination of Colombia in the preliminary investigation stage for years and regularly engaged in public and private peace talks with the Colombian government, judiciary, and civil society.58 This flexible, collaborative approach allowed the possibility of a peace agreement and potential criminal prosecutions in Colombian courts, even with the continuous participation of the ICC. The ICC closed its investigation and signed an agreement with Colombia to continue engaging through exchanging lessons learned and best practices, which is precisely in line with the mutual assistance found in regional complementarity.59
The Inter-American Court has been most effective in understanding its limitations and contributing to locally driven efforts.60 This institution was designed to complement national political and legal systems, with domestic actors being primarily responsible for preventing human rights violations.61 In a similar vein, the ICC would substantially benefit from recognizing its own limitations and delegating more substantially to regional efforts. The ICC was founded on the principle of complementarity, but in practice, it has not engaged in proactive complementarity to truly foster regional and national jurisdictions achieving justice on their own terms. Instead, the ICC has viewed itself as a primary agent of international justice.62 More intentional collaboration across varying institutions could achieve mutual benefits which inspire more effective, long-lasting international justice.
V. Conclusion
There is great potential in a more collaborative approach to proactive regional complementarity. In the interest of creating more formal cooperative relations, the ICC could negotiate and develop agreements between the Court and various regional organizations to share prosecutorial responsibilities in certain ways. With a broad interpretation of the acceptable forms of justice under the principle of complementarity, the Court could create a more just and effective distribution of responsibilities in approaching cases of grave international human rights violations. A formalized agreement would help achieve the ideal distribution of roles discussed earlier and facilitate concrete collaboration, such as through the provision of evidence from one justice mechanism to another. The potential for collaboration with parties outside of traditional justice mechanisms, from civil society to NGOs, would also be incredibly beneficial to the ICC and regional courts alike.
The field of international justice is complex and challenging, and the more the ICC is willing to recognize the unique skills and contexts of different players in the global system, the easier it will be for the Court to refocus its resources towards fulfilling its own mandate. When national, regional, and international institutions and actors each take responsibility for pursuing justice and fighting against global impunity, the field of international justice will continue to grow, with increasing intersectionality, and advance the protection of human rights around the world.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
About the Court, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Has the ICC Under-Represented Non-Western Legal Traditions?, ICC Forum (Jul. 25, 2022) [hereinafter Under-Represented Legal Traditions], available online; Is the ICC Targeting Africa Inappropriately?, ICC Forum (Mar. 17, 2013), available online. ↩
About the Court, supra note 1. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 17, available online. ↩
Sarah P. Nimigan, The Malabo Protocol, the ICC, and the Idea of “Regional Complementarity”, 17 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1005 (Nov. 5, 2019), paywall, earlier version, doi. ↩
About the Court, supra note 1. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 4, at Art. 1. ↩
Id. Art. 17. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. Art. 53. ↩
Nimigan, supra note 5, at 1020. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 1022. ↩
Miles Jackson, Regional Complementarity: Rome Statute and Public International Law, 14 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1061 (Dec. 17, 2016), available online, doi; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 31, May 23, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, available online, archived. ↩
Jackson, supra note 16. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 1066. ↩
Id. ↩
Under-Represented Legal Traditions, supra note 2. ↩
James L. Cavallaro & Jamie O’Connell, The ICC’s Best Bet: Look to Regional Systems, ICC Forum (Jul. 25, 2022), available online. ↩
James L. Cavallaro & Jamie O’Connell, When Prosecution is Not Enough: How the International Criminal Court Can Prevent Atrocity and Advance Accountability by Emulating Regional Human Rights Institutions, 45 Yale J. Int’l L. 1 (2020), available online. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 22. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 23, at 32. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 22. ↩
Darryl Robinson, Serving the Interests of Justice: Amnesties, Truth Commissions, and the International Criminal Court, 14 EJIL 481 (2003), available online. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 4, at Art. 53. ↩
Ray Nickson, By Recognizing Broader, Deeper, and Longer Conceptions of Justice Through Complementarity, the ICC Can Transcend a Narrow, Western Approach to International Criminal Justice, ICC Forum (Jul. 25, 2022), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
African Union, Withdrawal Strategy Document, Draft 2 (Jan. 12, 2017), available online. ↩
William W. Burke-White, Proactive Complementarity: The International Criminal Court and National Courts in the Rome System of Justice, 49 Harv. Int’l L.J. 53 (2008), available online. ↩
Id.; Nimigan, supra note 5. ↩
Nimigan, supra note 5. ↩
Burke-White, supra note 36. ↩
Nimigan, supra note 5, at 1022. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 4, at Art. 27. ↩
Nimigan, supra note 5, at 1022. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 1026. ↩
Nickson, supra note 31. ↩
Alexandra Valeria Huneeus, International Criminal Law by Other Means: The Quasi-Criminal Jurisdiction of the Human Rights Courts, 107 Am. J. Int’l L. 1 (Jan. 9, 2013), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 22. ↩
Huneeus, supra note 46, at 4. ↩
Id. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 23. ↩
Id. at 46. ↩
Huneeus, supra note 46, at 3. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 23, at 59. ↩
Id. at 61. ↩
Id. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 22. ↩
Id.; Cooperation Agreement Between the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court and the Government of Colombia, Art. 4 (Oct. 28, 2021), available online. ↩
Cavallaro & O’Connell, supra note 23, at 58. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 61. ↩
How Can the International Criminal Court Help National Courts Implement Universal Jurisdiction: Potential Applications and Pitfalls Arising from the Article 93 Cooperation
I. Introduction
In recent years, there has been renewed interest in countries exercising universal jurisdiction, i.e., the prosecution of foreign nationals for serious crimes unrelated to the prosecuting nation other than their offensiveness or threat to mankind generally.1 The logic underlying universal jurisdiction is that certain grievous crimes are such an afront to humanity and internationally accepted pre-entry norms that theoretically all nations have simultaneous jurisdiction to prosecute perpetrators of such conduct.2 The International Criminal Court (ICC or the Court) was established in large part, if not specifically, to prosecute this same serious criminal conduct, as defined under the Rome Statute.3 These Article 5 crimes consist of the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression (Article 5 Crimes).4 It is debatable whether the Rome Statute itself employs universal jurisdiction,5 as the Preamble of the Rome Statute implies,6 or whether its jurisdiction more conventionally arises from delegated jurisdiction7 created through treaty-making between States.
Aside from dogmatic and jurisdictional concerns, there are numerous practical challenges that have stymied the prosecutions of crimes that fall under universal jurisdiction, both at the ICC and in national courts.8 These challenges involve difficulty in obtaining reliable evidence and witnesses, overcoming diplomatic immunities and joinder issues,9 and issues surrounding trial in absentia when extradition remains elusive,10 among others.11 Most national prosecutors lack the experience and expertise to navigate these issues well as Article 5 Crimes are both inherently complex, and almost by definition, exceedingly rare.
The ICC is broadly authorized under Article 93 to cooperate with State Parties and non-State Parties to help overcome many of these challenges.12 Some forms of cooperation are explicitly given, namely regarding the transfer of evidence upon request by a State; but more significantly, the Rome Statute offers these cooperation mechanisms inter alia.13 Thus, the Statute leaves the door open for an expansive range of supportive cooperation. Such support could range from providing national courts technical advisory to current and former ICC attorneys trying matters in national courts pro hac vice.14 Such a partnership might violate a State’s domestic law, especially where prosecutors are part of the judiciary or explicitly represent the public interest. Additionally, issues could arise surrounding prosecutorial accountability where ICC-trained attorneys are not citizens of the nation where the universal jurisdiction proceedings are occurring. This risk could be mitigated by assigning ICC attorneys that are citizens of States with universal jurisdiction laws to cases from the same requesting State.
Another avenue of cooperation would be a formal training program where States that are interested in bolstering their ability to investigate and prosecute crimes similar Article 5 Crimes, send their staff to the Hague for formal training, similar to an LL.M. or clerkship. Finally, the ICC could provide advisory observations, similar to amicus briefs, to national courts during criminal proceedings, essentially serving as expert witnesses and lending their skills in a persuasive authority. In the long run, this could help build new national case law, with judges adopting ICC originated arguments and analysis in their decisions. However, all of these suggestions for means of cooperation carry a financial cost, and the ICC has a limited budget. Thus, they may prove more aspirational than practical.
II. Source of ICC Authority to Assist in National Courts: A Risky, Complex Endeavor
Aside from doctrinal and political objections to universal jurisdiction being applied in national courts, there are also significant practical barriers. The ICC is authorized to help overcome these barriers through the provision of “Other forms of cooperation.”15
As stated in the Rome Statute:
This provision grants the ICC the right to assist State Parties, i.e., signatories to the Treaty, in their investigation or trial of the four defined Article 5 Crimes, as well as other serious crimes defined under a States’ national law. The vagueness of the latter portion of this sentence appears to be a broad authorization as to which types of crimes it may aid with. It also appears to defer to the requesting State to determine what constitutes a serious crime. Presumably where a States’ national law extends to foreigners under a universal jurisdiction doctrine, this threshold would be met and the ICC would be authorized to assist. However, this also begs the question of whether the Court would agree to aid in other infractions not contained in the Rome Statute, such as drug trafficking, which some signatories likely view as being overly prosecuted or even discriminatory. For instance, assisting in the investigation and trial of narcotics traffickers in the United States by U.S. national prosecutors may be viewed detrimentally by ICC-funding States in Europe who are opposed to U.S. drug policy on abolitionist grounds, or State Parties in Latin America who feel their nationals are disproportionately targeted.
Also, would the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) or another organ of the Court have the authority to determine whether a crime is serious or unserious and thus worthy of cooperation? Or would this determination truly be left to the requesting State as the Statute seems to assert? The OTP is just one of the five organs of the Court.17 Per Article 42(1), the Rome Statute asserts:
When the Rome Statute refers to The Court throughout Article 93, it is unclear where the decision-making authority to cooperate or not cooperate rests, i.e., does the decision to share evidence or provide other assistance during a State’s national trial belong to the Presidency, the OTP, Chambers, or even the Registry? Given the political backlash cooperating may lead to, how this cooperative power is wielded is important.
If dissemination of evidence is considered a “non-judicial aspect of the administration and servicing of the Court”19 it would seem the responsibility to share evidence belongs to the Registry. Yet, according to Article 42, the OTP has full authority to manage and administer its resources and is intended to operate independently. Is evidence a resource of the OTP’s office? If so, the power should rest with it to independently determine its best use. The time and expense of the OTP’s staff seem even more squarely within this reading. Conversely, the Presidency given its “role in representing the Court to the outside world,” also seems to have a viable claim to speak for the Court on this issue.20 International cooperation would seem to fit into this representative, almost diplomatic, quasi-foreign policy-esq capacity. Finally, the discretionary may21 preceding the entire provision of cooperation implies that this is a decision which should be left to the Pre-Trial Chambers, whose “role is essentially to supervise how the OTP carriers out its investigatory and prosecutorial activities”22 according to the ICC in Understanding the Court.23
Given the historical practice of the OTP as leading the direction of the Court, along with its mandate to act independently on matters of investigation, I suspect the Prosecutor will have an outsized role in handling and deciding when and how to cooperate (even though the law is ambiguous on this). According to the ICC, it is in fact the OTP that has the responsibility. Part of the OTP is The Jurisdiction, Complementarity, and Cooperation Division, one of the four divisions that make up the OTP.24 In order to implement active participation in national court prosecutions, it would be advisable to increase the staffing of this division, which currently has approximately twelve employees, who are primarily former diplomats rather than lawyers. Shifting resources from two-hundred attorney strong Prosecution Division, or one-hundred employee Investigative Division, is one route to accomplish this. However, doing so would likely lead to less prosecutions at the ICC. This is a pragmatic reality that the OTP surely will contemplate. In the long run, the capacity building that this may lead to in national courts should have a force-multiplier effect, thus expanding the pie and encouraging less of a zero-sum calculation.
Some of this confusion is attributable to the mixed, international nature of the Treaty, which was drafted and negotiated by many countries (including the United States, even though it is not a signatory). These stakeholders came from mix of civil and common law traditions, which take differing views on the separation of prosecutors and judges.25 My focus on this may just as well be overblown, coming from a federalist system that strongly emphasizes delegated powers, and forgetting that the ICC is not itself a federated, sovereign state.26 Regardless, the decision to cooperate or not cooperate seems like an opportunity ripe to become politicized, whether it is at the hands of prosecutorial discretion or judicial decision. For instance, while the United States is not a State Party, under the Rome Statute it also has the right request for cooperation, which the Court may or may not agree to provide.
As stated in Article 93(10)(c), the ICC generously expands the offer of investigatory and trial assistance to non-signatories:
It is conceivable that the United States may seek evidence collected by the OTP for use in domestic prosecutions of arms traffickers, terrorists, or drug smugglers, among others. Given that the United States has at times had a very hostile relationship with the ICC, to the point of sanctioning the entity and its personnel, would it be expected that the OTP or other organ of the Court share evidence? According to the discretionary may in Article 93, it is fully within the Court’s prerogative to decide to cooperate with such a request, for ostensibly whatever reason it sees fit. The potential for politicization of such cooperation may lead to an unfair application of justice, where a national court’s access to ICC gathered evidence, or trial assistance, depends on the requesting State’s present relationship with the Court (or the OTP in particular). Such an outcome could prejudice the rights of victims, who might be denied justice due to the forces greatly beyond.
For instance, if a perpetrator of genocide resided in the territory of a non-State Party and that country had the jurisdiction and desire to prosecute but lacked evidence in the ICC’s possession necessary to obtain a conviction, that perpetrator could go unpunished but-for the ICC’s cooperation.28 If that cooperation depended on politics or other biases against that national court, this would go against the object and purpose of the Treaty to “put an end to impunity for perpetrators of these [most serious] crimes”29 and would be against the interests of justice30 generally.
Conversely, Article 93 seems to prejudice the rights of the accused by specifying that the requestor must be a State Party31 or other “State which is not a Party to this Statute.”32 This explicitly prohibit individuals or non-state organizations from making such a request. For instance, if an accused individual believes the Court is in possession of exculpatory evidence, Article 93 provides no route of evidence sharing, other than a formal request by a State. Thus, for a defendant in a national court proceeding to obtain such evidence, he or she would be required to petition the national government that is bringing the case against them, or potentially a third-party State, to submit a request on their behalf to the ICC. Article 96 gives precise—and potentially onerous—rules that this request must follow.33 This is an additional procedural barrier which prejudices the accused when being tried in a national court setting, and which seems to go against the rights of the accused enshrined including the right to a “fair hearing conducted impartially…in full equality.”34 While these rights are intended to accrue to the accused during a trial before the ICC, that they would not be respected when the ICC has used its discretionary authority and semi-sovereign resources to gather evidence, especially when that evidence may be exculpatory, seems to be an affront to the generally accepted principle of prompt dissemination of exculpatory evidence and not in the interest of justice.
This principle is codified in Article 67(2):
Where the Prosecutor seeks and fails to prosecute a perpetrator at the ICC, is he or she likely to volunteer such exculpatory evidence during a trial before a national court, especially when there is no express obligation to so?
It seems reasonable that jurisdictional complexities and the limited resources of the OTP may serve as convincing excuses for the Prosecutor failing to disclose exculpatory evidence during a national proceeding, resulting in injustice based on personal or institutional bias. Or to disclose in a manner that is consistent with the Prosecutor’s current relationship with the State in which a universal jurisdiction prosecution is being held, resulting in injustice based on political bias. As such, Article 93’s version of one-sided cooperation is biased against the defense of the accused in a national prosecution.36 This is in line with arguments put forward by many scholars that prosecutors in general, and the ICC’s Prosecutor in particular, have an imbalance of power due to the State’s greater resources and influence.37 To avoid these biases, the OTP should develop an apolitical evidence sharing system that is equally accessible to State prosecutors as well as defendants.
The ICC’s online digital archive, accessible to anyone who registers, seek to accomplish. However, in practice the vast sums of data contained within it are hard to navigate and there is a high likelihood that evidence that would be useful in a national investigation or trial may be missed, by either side. Improving the search functions of this archive and mandating that the OTP update it with exculpatory evidence as it is discovered, even after the Court has determined it will not proceed with a trial, would help to ensure prosecutorial bias does not hurt justice in national courts. Similarly, increasing the searchability of the data will make national investigations more efficient. This could be achieved through trainings, led by the OTP or the Registry, with prosecutors and investigators in States that practice universal jurisdiction.
III. Extent of Authorization to Cooperate: More Comments on Evidence
The scope of cooperation is also exceptionally broad under Article 93. The assistance which the Court may be provide to States is defined as being provided, inter alia.38 The use of inter alia, or “among others”, gives the OTP broad authorization to help requesting States in nearly anyway it sees fit, with some minor caveats. One of these caveats, found in Article 93(10)(b)(i)(a), demands that before providing a requestor evidence that the ICC procured with the assistance of a State, it must obtain that State’s consent.39 For example, if a State’s national police gathered evidence against an accused through a wiretap that it then provided to the ICC, the ICC must get the State’s consent before sharing the tapes with the requesting third party State. Generally, the ICC collects evidence independently, i.e., it is rarely relies on the State to help it collect physical evidence. As such, this caveat does not come up often in practice. Were the Court to more frequently investigate matters in developed countries, it is likely that State assistance in investigations would be more commonplace, as a result of increased State capabilities and more democratic political landscapes, which may lead to this caveat being triggered more frequently. The Court has shown interest in handling a more diverse range of cases, including against American officials, which have also been taken up by national courts on universal jurisdiction grounds.40 As such, it is conceivable that requests for evidence that was provided to the ICC by States will increase over time. For example, if an Eastern European State provided the ICC with evidence regarding a U.S. black site prison operating in its territory, and then France requested access to the same evidence for use in a domestic prosecution of U.S. officials under a universal jurisdiction doctrine, the Eastern European State’s consent would be required under Article 93. Political pressure may strongly influence whether such a State grants this consent, especially if the government that initially provided the evidence to the ICC has changed, or if its government’s relations with the United States have deteriorated. A solution for this may be that the OTP seeks irrevocable consent for future dissemination of such evidence upon the receipt of it, in the event that it is requested for use by a third-party national prosecution of the same or similar crimes for which it it was provided to the ICC. This seems like a viable contractual work around to obligate the provider and insure against politically motivated changes of heart.
Additionally, the Rome Statute explicitly makes no assurances on the relevance or admissibility of evidence collected by a State on that evidence’s admissibility in the State’s national courts.41 Ostensibly, the same consideration would apply to the relevance or admissibility of evidence in other States’ national courts. However, that is not what the Rome Statute says. That is left up to national courts to determine, likely due to sovereignty concerns. This provides the OTP an opportunity to help other national courts pursuing universal jurisdiction prosecutions. Firstly, it could seek formal decisions from Chambers on the credibility of evidence, which may carry persuasive, or even binding authority in national courts, depending on the national law.42 Secondly, OTP personnel could serve as expert witnesses themselves in universal jurisdiction trials conducted in third-party national courts, something that is not explicitly prohibited in the Rome Statute. While they would not have official authority, and may not even be testifying in their capacity of an ICC employee, given their extensive training and experience in the area, they would be uniquely qualified to opine on the credibility of evidence collected in war zones and post-genocide societies. Through expert witness work as well as the Courts own decisions, the ICC has potential to help set global standards such evidence. The OTP can promote this further by pushing the Court to give detailed analysis in their decisions, for the standards used to determine credibility and admissibility, and encourage it to rule on the credibility of evidence that might otherwise be seen as superfluous for the case at hand, but which may have significant value to future prosecutions in other courts.
IV. Other Opportunities for the ICC to Help in Capacity Building at the National Level
Where there is the greatest potential for the OTP to help national courts be more effective in is through capacity building. Article 93 gives the ICC broad authorization to help States investigate, and even assist in trial of, Article 5 Crimes and other serious crimes.43 Given the rarity of prosecuting crimes brought under the universal jurisdiction doctrine, namely Genocide, War Crimes, and Crimes Against Humanity, the OTP likely has more experience litigating such matters than the vast majority of national prosecutors. As such, the OTP is in a unique position to help national courts develop capacity to handle these matters. Firstly, the OTP allow the Prosecutor and Deputy Prosecutor, as well as the other attorneys in the OTP, to petition national courts to serve pro hac vice or in other, hands-on direct capacities during universal jurisdiction cases. Second, the OTP should develop a department specialized in drafting amicus briefs for use in national proceedings, summarizing their take on the issues presented. Third, the OTP should develop a program where it trains national prosecutors on how to build and litigate Article 5 Crimes. By using these capacity building methods, the Court could encourage the domestic prosecution of Article 5 Crimes, promoting the principle of complementarity, while supporting also national courts that are pursuit of universal jurisdiction.
A. Providing ICC Prosecutorial Staff to National Courts
The OTP could become a more effective partner to national governments’ prosecutions by loaning its prosecutors to requesting States investigating and prosecuting serious crimes that the OTP has unique expertise in handling. Genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity are inherently complex. The investigation and prosecution of these crimes require collecting evidence in active or former warzones where witnesses are vulnerable, physical evidence is hard to preserve, and where a variety of complex legal doctrines collide. From persuading a court to accept the State’s position on gravity or disproportionality, to helping investigators dissect the culpability of former child soldiers in the recruitment of new child soldiers, the range of issues presented when prosecuting such atrocities requires a high degree of specialization. Given the infrequence of such crimes, and their prosecutions, few domestic prosecutors’ offices are equipt to adequately handle these matters as proficiently as the OTP. Thus, the OTP should make their personnel available to help national courts navigate these issues directly, by actively helping prosecutors try cases, in a pro hac vice capacity,44 or simply by consulting with prosecutors and investigators as they prepare for trial on a particular matter.
If the ICC were to take a more proactive role in deploying its current and former prosecutorial staff to practice in national courts, the ICC could develop into what it was intended to be—a court of last resort. While such representations would require the national law to allow for this, it is reasonable that nations which have warmed to universal jurisdiction, will also be amendable to this. Similarly, developing nations interested in increasing their overall prosecutorial acumen and signaling their compliance with human rights would also likely accept.
However, this could also be viewed by defendants and the public as giving the State an unfair upper hand in prosecutions and an unreasonable allocation of State police power to a non-citizen. In some jurisdictions, prosecutors are themselves technically part of the judiciary with enhanced legal protections and status, such as in France and Italy,45 raising further concerns over accountability and sovereignty. Where a noncitizen is handling a prosecution, the ability of the State and the public to hold them accountable for misconduct also may arise. These issues could be avoided by matching OTP personnel to Article 93 requests, based on their citizenship and where they are already authorized to practice. The goal of these joint representations would be to ensure the highest caliber of legal services are brought bear on serious matters and to give national prosecutors hands on training and mentorship. As previously discussed, this would also involve a reduction in staff available for ICC investigations and prosecutions.
B. OTP Drafted Amicus Briefs
Second, the OTP and other organs of the Court could issue amicus briefs or other declaratory statements on general international criminal law standards and on particular active matters, at the request of a State. Such observatory documents could prove to be useful in helping inexperienced prosecutors and judges analyze issues which the ICC has extensive experience dissecting. For the reasoned discussed earlier, this may lead to unfair outcomes given that only the State can make such requests. Additionally, both this and the prior suggestion may conflict with the Prosecutor and Deputy Prosecutor’s obligation not to engage in activities that interfere with their duties or affect confidence in their independence.46 The OTP’s Legal Advisory Section would likely have to opine on whether these suggestions go beyond what the Rome Statute authorizes. Over involvement in national court prosecutions, even through persuasive authority, may be construed as overly interventionist. Such a characterization could lead to further resistance to the ICC from the United States, Russia, China, and other global powers, which could lead to cut funding and encourage their allies to withdrawal. Nonetheless, if done legitimately, such persuasive briefings could be of great value. They could help States’ local prosecutors develop stronger arguments and help domestic courts adopt better reasoning in their published decisions, potentially leading to more robust, globally standardized precedents.
C. OTP Sponsored Formal Training Program and Specialization for National Prosecutors
Third, the OTP should institute a formal training program for prosecutors from States with universal jurisdiction laws or a need to develop skills to prosecute serious domestic crimes. Such a programs could consist of an apprenticeship or clerking program where national prosecutors work under seasoned OTP attorneys directly at the Hague, a specialization process for national prosecutors accredited by the ICC or ran directly by the OTP, as well as classroom-based training programs. This would encourage complementarity, through capacity building, and the application of universal jurisdiction. Additionally, it would fit well within the object and purpose of the Rome Statute to promote effective prosecution at the national level in order to enhance international cooperation and ensure an end to impunity for perpetrators of atrocities.47
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Human Rights Watch, Basic Facts on Universal Jurisdiction (Oct. 19, 2009), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9, as amended [hereinafter Rome Statute], available online. ↩
Id. Art. 5
(noting, however, its ability to adjudicate the crime of aggression remains theoretical). ↩
Monique Cormier, Universality as a Legal Basis for ICC Jurisdiction, in The Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court over Nationals of Non-States Parties 159 (Aug. 6, 2020), paywall, doi
(discussing the validity of universal jurisdiction as an acceptable basis for the Court’s authority but ultimately concluding that there is no advantage to characterizing the ICC’s authority as arising from any universality model rather than treaty created, delegated jurisdiction). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Preamble. ↩
International Criminal Court, Understanding the International Criminal Court 11 (2020) [hereinafter Understanding the ICC], available online. ↩
See generally, Valérie Paulet, Trial International, Evidentiary Challenges in Universal Jurisdiction Cases (2019), available online. ↩
See Mohamed Ali Samantar v. Bashe Abdi Yousuf et al., 560 U.S. 305 (Jun. 1, 2010), available online.
(In this case the United States Supreme Court dismissed an Alien Tort Act claim involving a high-ranking former Somalian official accused of torture, reasoning that even after overcoming the petitioner’s immunity defense on jus cogens grounds, it would be impossible for the accused to mount a fair defense without joining the government of Somalia and its current head of state—who would be entitled to sovereign immunity. While this case pertained to a civil matter brought in the United States—a nation that is generally averse universal jurisdiction—it highlights the procedural complexity that can arise when national courts seek to apply universal jurisdiction in criminal matters). ↩
Sudan Says Will “Hand Over” al-Bashir to ICC for War Crimes Trial, Al Jazeera, Aug. 12, 2021, available online.
(This has been a major issue facing the ICC, where they simply cannot prosecute due to failing to secure the extradition of an accused. For example, former Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir has been under ICC indictment for over twelve years for genocide and other Article 5 Crimes. As of this writing, the ICC has failed to secure his extradition to the Hague for prosecution. This is despite an agreement with the country’s new leadership and rebels, following a coup d’état, to ratify the Rome Statute and hand over al-Bashir. He remains imprisoned locally on comparatively minor corruption charges). ↩
See also, Christopher Keith Hall, Amnesty Int’l, Universal Jurisdiction: The Challenges for Police and Prosecuting Authorities 11–17 (Jun. 2007), available online. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 93(10). ↩
Id. ↩
Definition of Pro hac vice, Wex, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 93(10). ↩
Id. ↩
Id. Art. 34. ↩
Id. Art. 42(1). ↩
Id. Art. 43. ↩
Understanding the ICC, supra note 7, at 17. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 93(10). ↩
Understanding the ICC, supra note 7, at 20. ↩
Id. at 9. ↩
Id. at 21. ↩
In civil law jurisdictions, the prosecutor is more of an organ of the court, often working hand-in-hand with the judge to make the State’s case. In contrast, in common law jurisdictions, which are typically more adversarial, the judge is supposed to be a neutral referee. The insistence on the OTP being an independent organ that wields large powers, yet is not serving in a judicial capacity, may stem from the compromises that went into drafting the Rome Statute. ↩
Though some, including former Prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo, regard the ICC as a confederation of sorts. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 93. ↩
Id.
(Similarly, if a perpetrator resided in the territory of a State Party and the ICC was unable to compel extradition, the same analysis would apply). ↩
Id. at Preamble ¶¶ 5–6. ↩
See id. Art. 53(1)(c), Art. 53(2)(c).
(This theme is woven throughout the Rome Statute, in particular around indictment and issues of prosecutorial discretion where it serves as the standard against which the OTP is supposed to weigh whether or not to bring a case). ↩
Id. Art. 93(10)(a). ↩
Id. Art. 93(10)(c) (emphasis added). ↩
Id. Art. 96. ↩
Id. Art. 67(1). ↩
Id. Art. 67(2). ↩
This is especially true in an adversarial system of law, such as in the United States or United Kingdom, comparatively to France and other jurisdictions that follow inquisitional systems of law. As prosecutors in adversarial jurisdictions are often incentivized to achieve justice by any means necessary including taking advantage of procedural advantages that allow for the suppression of inadmissible evidence. ↩
Hall, supra note 11, at 17
(discussing that this is especially relevant when evidence is sourced from transitional governments). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 93(10). ↩
Id. Art. 93(10)(b). ↩
See Universal Jurisdiction: Accountability for U.S. Torture, CCR (Sep. 8, 2021), available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 69(8). ↩
Some States, such as South Africa, explicitly incorporate international law into their body of law. ↩
Id. Art. 93(10)(a). ↩
Jenia Iontcheva Turner, Transnational Networks and International Criminal Justice, 105 Mich. L. Rev. 985, 987–88 (Mar. 2007), available online
(advocating for supranational prosecutors to help overcome the “globalization paradox”). ↩
Scott Beazley, Nicholas Cowdery & Pierre Rosario Domingue, The Status and Role of Prosecutors, UNODC (Nov. 2014), available online. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 42(5). ↩
Id. at Preamble. ↩
I. Introduction
The principle of complementarity is a cornerstone of the Rome Statute and the International Criminal Court (ICC). Under this design, the ICC will only intervene in “exceptional” circumstances where states fail to investigate and prosecute international crimes.1 Since its inception, the ICC has opened investigations in nine African States.2 A number of scholarly works suggest that African regional courts can promote complementarity by directly prosecuting individuals who commit grave international crimes. However, there is not currently an operational African regional court with the jurisdiction or capacity to prosecute individuals.
In this comment, I assess how the judicial organs of the African Union (AU) can promote complementarity in Africa outside of hearing individual cases. In Section II, I begin by providing a brief background on the ICC’s jurisdiction and the principle of positive complementarity. Then, in Section III, I present an overview of the AU’s judicial organs. Next, in Section IV, I suggest that the AU’s judicial organs can meaningfully promote positive complementarity through Fact-finding Missions and Evidence-gathering, Support for National Legislative and Judicial Efforts, and Developing Procedures and Jurisprudence that Reinforce Long-Term Domestic Efforts to Advance Human Rights. Finally, I discuss some of the practical challenges the AU might face in implementing the strategies above.
II. Scope of ICC Prosecutions and the Principle of Positive Complementarity
The ICC was established as a mechanism to hold individuals (rather than States) accountable for the most serious international crimes.3 Under the Rome Statute, the ICC’s jurisdiction is limited to four crimes: (a) genocide; (b) crimes against humanity; (c) war crimes; and (d) the crime of aggression.4 The ICC’s jurisdiction is further limited by the principle of complementarity which places the primary responsibility for investigating, prosecuting, and punishing crimes with national courts.5 Under this framework, the ICC may only admit cases when States with jurisdiction are unwilling or unable to genuinely investigate and prosecute mass atrocities themselves.6 The ICC may determine that a State is unwilling or unable to carry out genuine proceedings when they are not conducted impartially, are unjustifiably delayed, are undertaken to shield a person from criminal responsibility in another forum, or when a national judicial system is unavailable or has substantially collapsed.7 Adopting a positive approach to complementarity, the ICC seeks to promote national proceedings where possible by providing information to national judiciaries, calling upon officials to investigate, and supporting development organizations.8 Below I argue that the AU’s judicial organs could adopt a similar, positive approach to complementarity to support national proceedings.
III. Structure and Jurisdiction of the AU’s Judicial Organs
To effectively assess how the AU’s judicial organs can promote complementarity, I first examine the jurisdiction, powers, and operationality of these organs to determine what strategies they can feasibly implement. While a number of different judicial organs have been developed and proposed by the AU Assembly, only two are operational today: the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR); and The African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR). In 1986, the Organization of African Unity, the predecessor of the AU, passed the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (the Charter) creating the first African continental quasi-judicial body—the ACHPR.9 The Charter is the first human rights protection mechanism in Africa and remains in force today.10 The ACHPR is an instrument of human rights law and its mandate includes interpretating the Charter, as well as the promotion and protection of human and peoples’ rights.11 Under the promotional mandate, the commission is responsible for researching and investigating African problems in the field of human rights and hosting seminars, symposia, and conferences to disseminate this information.12 Under the protective mandate, the commission hears complaints about State violations of human rights submitted by individuals, State parties, and NGOs, and issues recommendations.13 Significantly, while the ACHPR conducts legal investigations and analyses, it does not have any binding legal authority.14
In 2000, the Constitutive Act of 2000 formally established the AU.15 The act provided for two judicial orgrans, the ACHPR and the Court of Justice of the African Union (CJAU).16 The ACHPR continued to perform its quasi-judicial functions while the CJAU was never operationalized.17 Recognizing the need for a human rights court with binding legal authority, in 2004, the AU amended the Charter to create the ACtHPR.18 The ACtHPR complements the ACHPR’s protective mandate by hearing complaints about State actions that threaten human rights and issuing binding legal decisions. The ACtHPR has jurisdiction over all cases and disputes concerning the Charter, and any relevant human rights law enacted or ratified by member States.19 Importantly, because both the ACHPR and ACtHPR only examine whether States have committed human rights abuses, they do not engage in individual criminal prosecution.20
Since 2004, two significant changes to the structure and powers of AU’s judicial organs were proposed but not ratified. First, in 2008, the AU adopted the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR) which merged the ACtHPR with the non-operational CJAU to create the ACJHR.21 The merger was motivated by a desire to centralize and streamline the AU’s judicial operations through the creation of a single court.22 However, because only eight AU member States have ratified the Protocol, the merger has not officially occurred and the ACJHR has not been operationalized.23
Second, throughout the early 2000s, a number of AU member States identified the need for a regional court with jurisdiction to criminally prosecute individuals for the grave international crimes in the Rome Statute.24 This may have been motivated in part by the regional movement to pull out of the ICC amid accusations that the court was unfairly targeting African States.25 In 2014, AU member States drafted the Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the ACJHR (Malabo Protocol) to empower the ACJHR to prosecute individuals for international crimes including genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, the crime of aggression, terrorism and more.26 The Malabo Protocol would, in theory, promote complementarity by empowering the ACJHR to prosecute African individuals for international crimes locally (rather than referring these cases to the ICC) when national jurisdictions are unwilling or unable to do so. However, to date, only fifteen AU member States have signed the Malabo Protocol, and none have ratified it.27 Given that neither the Protocol on the Statute of the ACJHR nor the Malabo Protocol have been ratified, it is unlikely that the AU will have an operational regional court with the authority to prosecute individuals in the near future. Thus, the AU’s only operational judicial organs, the ACHPR and ACtHPR, must work within their mandates to promote complementarity in Africa without trying individual cases.
IV. How the AU and its Judicial Organs Can Promote Positive Complementarity
The ACHPR and ACtHPR’s current mandates can be utilized to advance positive complementarity. As organs of human rights law, the ACHPR and ACtHPR undoubtedly have different purposes than the ICC or domestic criminal institutions. However, international human rights law and international criminal law share the common goal of deterring and ending impunity for mass atrocities and serious violations of human rights.28 As Pacifique Manirakiza explains:
Recognizing the interconnectedness of international criminal and human rights law, the ACHPR and ACtHPR can work within their human rights-based mandates to promote complementarity through Fact-finding Missions and Evidence-gathering, Support for National Legislative and Judicial Efforts, and Procedures and Jurisprudence that Reinforce Long-Term Domestic Efforts to Advance Human Rights.
A. Fact-finding Missions and Evidence-gathering
The ACHPR can utilize the evidence gathered during fact-finding missions conducted within its promotional mandate to aid domestic investigations and prosecutions. Under Article 45 of the Charter, the ACHPR may conduct fact-finding missions to collect documents, and undertake studies of human rights abuses on its own initiative or at the request of other AU organs.30 While these missions are not conducted for the purpose of individual criminal prosecutions, they often yield findings that could be used to inform domestic judicial proceedings. For example, a 2013 ACHPR fact-finding mission in Mali uncovered evidence of crimes against humanity in the Aguel’hoc and Diabali attacks as well as the rape of women and girls throughout the crisis.31 ACHPR fact-finding missions typically include meetings with government officials, local authorities, and human rights-based civil society groups and NGOs as well as interviews with victims, witnesses, and sometimes rebel factions.32 The information gathered during these missions could be used to identify perpetrators, build an evidentiary basis for their arrest and indictment, and eventually prosecute them. Where the ACHPR is confident that a State with jurisdiction is capable of arresting and prosecuting perpetrators, as well as guaranteeing victim and witness safety, it should share this evidence.
With this, the ACHPR can utilize its existing relationships with human rights NGOs across Africa to facilitate evidence-gathering in the wake of mass atrocities. Human rights professionals are often best positioned to record evidence of serious international crimes because they are present during or in the immediate wake of mass violence while other criminal law actors are not.33 Investigators and court representatives, for instance, typically do not visit the site of the crime until months or years after the fact.34 International law scholars Morten Bergsmo and William Wiley propose that where it is safe to do so and human rights officials are properly trained, they should interview witnesses and document possible crime scenes by taking photographs or videos, drafting factual reports, properly handling physical evidence, and securing the scene.35 Bergsmo and Wiley likewise suggest that human rights officials can provide valuable testimony as linkage or expert witnesses at trial.36 The ACHPR interacts with a myriad of human rights organizations in Africa, including 151 NGOs that have been granted observer status to the commission.37 The ACHPR should utilize its existing NGO network to expedite and improve the collection of physical evidence as well as first or secondhand testimony following mass atrocities. Gathering evidence through sources closer to an alleged crime will help ensure domestic or international prosecutors have a sufficient evidentiary basis to charge and prosecute perpetrators. Thus, both the ACHPR’s fact-finding missions and its robust network with human rights NGOs are valuable investigative tools that could be used to support national judicial proceedings.
B. Support for National Legislative and Judicial Efforts
The AU and ACHPR can further promote complementarity by supporting States in their efforts to incorporate human rights crimes into national law and prosecute individuals for international crimes. Incorporating the Rome Statute into national law is an important step towards effectively prosecuting individuals for international crimes. This step is especially essential in dualist countries, where treaties are not automatically incorporated into national law upon ratification.38 However, even in monist States, where international treaties are automatically binding on the State, merely ratifying the Rome Statute is likely not sufficient to effectuate domestic prosecution of international crimes.39 As a Human Rights Watch handbook on implementing the Rome Statute explains:
Thus, the AU should work with State legislatures to promote the development of national policy on the prosecution of international crimes. In 2016, the AU produced a model national law on universal jurisdiction over international crimes.41 The model law provides statutory definitions for the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes that are consistent with the Rome Statute, as well definitions for terrorism, and piracy and model language for clauses on individual criminal responsibility, rights of the accused, and punishment.42 The AU should continue to disseminate this model and create other models for national laws adopting courts to prosecute international crimes and codifying the Rome Statute. These models can help expediate domestic legislative efforts to codify the Rome Statute and develop the proper criminal substantive and procedural law to actualize prosecutions.
Second, the ACHPR should host regular conferences about international criminal and human rights law to help train African legal professionals in these fields. Even where a legal framework for international crimes exists, genuine prosecutions are often stalled by a lack of properly trained legal staff. The Ugandan situation is a prime example. Beginning in the late 1980s, the LRA rebel group committed mass human rights violations against civilian populations in Northern Uganda.43 In 2003, the Ugandan government invited the ICC to investigate.44 Five years later, in 2008, Uganda established an International Crimes Division (ICD) under the High Court of Uganda to try international crimes including genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, terrorism, human-trafficking and more.45 Likewise, in 2010, Uganda incorporated the Rome Statute into Ugandan law.46 Despite these significant legislative advancements, however, the ICD has struggled to convict any individuals or achieve genuine complementarity. A Human Rights Watch report detailed that some major obstacles to the ICD’s success are conflicts of law and unfamiliarity with novel international crimes, inadequate resources for criminal defendants, and limited investigative and legal staff.47 By hosting regular symposiums, seminars, and conferences dedicated to international criminal investigations and prosecutions, the ACHPR could, first, help legal professionals navigate the complex, unique challenges of international criminal law by inviting experts and providing a forum for knowledge-sharing. Second, the ACHPR could use these conferences to build up a network of qualified, experienced African international criminal law professionals who may be willing to help fill resource gaps in States like Uganda. By providing legislative resources and forums for legal training the AU and ACHPR can positively influence the long-term development of national judicial systems.
C. Procedures and Jurisprudence that Reinforce Long-Term Domestic Efforts to Advance Human Rights
Moreover, the ACHPR and ACtHPR should develop procedures and jurisprudence that reinforce existing efforts to advance human rights and hold perpetrators of mass atrocities accountable. James Cavallaro and Stephanie Brewer first posited that in regions that suffer from “large-scale, endemic human rights violations,” regional courts are most likely to be effective when their procedures and jurisprudence are relevant to social movements, human rights activists, media campaigns, civil society groups, progressive government officials, etc. who are engaged in long-term efforts to advance human rights.48 This theory can be applied to the ACHPR and ACtHPR. In fact, a study on ACHPR decisions from 1994 to 2003 found that local and international NGO engagement significantly improved State compliance and follow-through with commission recommendations.49 Likewise, Obiora Chinedu Okafor found that the ACHPR commission was most effective in Nigeria when its decisions contributed to the existing efforts of domestic human rights activists:
Thus, while the ACHPR and ACtHPR’s factual analysis and decisions should remain impartial, they should adopt a strategic approach that considers the political and social climate of the States within which they have jurisdiction.
With this, coordinated pressure and support from the AU, its judicial organs, media, and civil society groups can influence States to pursue prosecutions they otherwise would not. The Senegalese use of universal jurisdiction to prosecute former Chadian dictator Hissène Habré demonstrates the impact of broader movements. Habré ruled Chad from 1982 to 1990 during which time his government engaged in mass human rights violations.51 After Habré’s government was overthrown in 1990 he fled to Senegal.52 In 2000, Chadian victims partnered with numerous international human rights organizations to file a criminal complaint against Habré in Senegal.53 The Senegalese government was initially unwilling to prosecute Habré itself, but in May 2006, an AU-appointed committee of African jurists issued a decision calling on Senegal to prosecute Habré on behalf of Africa.54 In response, Senegal implemented a national universal jurisdiction law granting Senegalese courts jurisdiction over Habré’s crimes.55 However, the prosecution remained stalled. Over the next few years, the combined efforts of the AU, press, NGOs, and international justice and human rights organizations culminated in the formation of the Extraordinary African Chambers (EAC)—an ad hoc tribunal within Senegal’s existing court system with jurisdiction to prosecute Habré.56 In 2016, the EAC convicted Habré of crimes against humanity, war crimes, and torture.57 While the Habré case relied on the exercise of universal jurisdiction, it illustrates how the AU, ACHPR, and ACtHPR can more effectively promote prosecution by coordinating their efforts with existing positive political and social movements.
V. Challenges
In this section I examine some of the practical challenges the AU, ACHPR, and ACtHPR would face in implementing the strategies discussed above. First, the ACHPR and ACtHPR likely do not have sufficient funding to adopt extensive programming. In 2020, the AU reduced both the ACHPR and ACtHPR’s budgets.58 Specifically, the ACHPR’s budget was reduced by 14% with all funds earmarked for either operating or recurrent expenditures and no funds allocated to program activities.59 At the ACHPR 2020 extraordinary session Commissioner Solomon Dersso expressed the limiting impact of reduced funding:
With such expansive mandates and comparably limited funding the ACHPR and ACtHPR likely do not have the capacity to significantly expand programming or host large-scale training events.
Furthermore, there may be resistance to ACHPR investigation and evidence-gathering in member States. First, State governments may be unwilling to allow the ACHPR to conduct fact-finding missions altogether. Particularly where government officials have been complicit in human rights violations, they have strong incentives to block the ACHPR’s access to the State and are likely to decline requests for fact-finding missions. Beyond this, it may be too dangerous for ACHPR staff, other human rights professionals, and witnesses and victims to engage in evidence-gathering in active crisis zones. Utilizing the ACHPR’s promotional mandate and NGO network to identify and prosecute individual perpetrators of mass atrocities may endanger ACHPR and NGO officials in crisis situations by making them targets of perpetrators. Thus, this strategy likely could not safely be implemented broadly.
Moreover, the ACHPR and ACtHPR’s action will likely also be constrained by political backlash from member States. States may, for example, threaten to or actually withdraw from the Protocols granting the ACHPR and ACtHPR jurisdiction over them. For example, in 2019, Tanzania withdrew its declaration under Article 34(6) of the ACtHPR Protocol disallowing NGOs and individuals from directly filing cases against Tanzania.61 An Amnesty International report suggests that Tanzania’s withdrawal was truly motivated by a desire to evade accountability in response to judgments by the court against Tanzania.62
VI. Conclusion
The ACHPR and ACtHPR can promote positive complementarity in Africa in a number of ways outside of prosecuting individual criminal defendants. While the organs will grapple with some practical constraints, the ACHPR and ACtHPR can work within their current mandates to engage in fact-finding missions and evidence-gathering, support national legislative and judicial efforts, and develop procedures and jurisprudence that support long-term efforts to advance human rights.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, Prosecutorial Strategy 2009–2012 (Feb. 1, 2010) [hereinafter Prosecutorial Strategy], available online. ↩
Situations under Investigation, ICC, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 1, available online. ↩
Id. Art. 5. ↩
Prosecutorial Strategy, supra note 1, at 4. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 3, at Art. 17. ↩
Id. ↩
Prosecutorial Strategy, supra note 1, at 5. ↩
Daniel Abebe, Does International Human Rights Law in African Courts Make a Difference?, 56 Va. J. Int’l L. 527, 539 (2016), available online. ↩
History of the African Charter, ACHPR, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Organization of African Unity, African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 21 Int’l L. Materials 58, Art. 17 (Jun. 27, 1981, entered into force Oct. 21, 1986) [hereinafter Banjul Charter], available online. ↩
AU Echo, 2016: African Year of Human Rights with a Focus on the Rights of Women, 58–60 (Jul. 2016), available online. ↩
History, ACHPR, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Frans Viljoen, The African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in International Human Rights Law in Africa 420 (Sep. 2007), paywall, doi. ↩
African Union, Constitutive Act of the African Union, Art. 2 (Jul. 11, 2000, entered into force May 26, 2001), available online. ↩
Id. Art. 5. ↩
Abebe, supra note 9, at 576. ↩
Organization of African Unity, Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Art. 3 (Jun. 10, 1998, entered into force Jan. 25, 2004), available online. ↩
Id. Arts. 2, 3. ↩
Pascifique Manirakiza, Complementarity between the International Criminal Law Section and Human Rights Mechanisms in Africa, in The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Developments and Challenges 989 (Charles Chernor Jalloh, Kamari Maxine Clarke & Vincent Obisienunwo Orlu Nmehielle, eds., May 2, 2019), available online. ↩
African Union, Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, Art. 2 (Jul. 1, 2008), available online. ↩
Abebe, supra note 9, at 577. ↩
List of Countries that have Signed, Ratified/Acceded to Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, AU, (updated Jun. 18, 2020), available online. ↩
Sarah P. Nimigan, The Malabo Protocol, the ICC, and the Idea of “Regional Complementarity,” 17 JICL 1005, 1006–07 (Nov. 5, 2019), paywall, earlier version, doi. ↩
Id. at 1008. ↩
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, Art. 3 (Jun. 27, 2014) [hereinafter Malabo Protocol], available online. ↩
List of Countries that have Signed, Ratified/Acceded to Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, AU (updated May 20, 2019), available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Manirakiza, supra note 20, at 990–91. ↩
Id. at 992. ↩
Banjul Charter, supra note 11, at Art. 45. ↩
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Report of the Fact-Finding Mission to the Republic of Mali 18 (2013), available online. ↩
Amnesty International, A Guide to the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights 17 (Nov. 2, 2007), available online. ↩
Morten Bergsmo & William H. Wiley, Human Rights Professionals and the Criminal Investigation and Prosecution of Core International Crimes, in Manual on Human Rights Monitoring: An Introduction for Human Rights Field Officers 13 (2008), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 14–17. ↩
Id. at 24–25. ↩
Network: Non-governmental Organizations, ACHPR, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Human Rights Watch, Making the International Criminal Court Work: A Handbook for Implementing the Rome Statute 6 (Sep. 2001), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
African Union, Model National Law on Universal Jurisdiction over International Crimes (Jul. 13, 2012), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Elise Keppler, HRW, Justice for Serious Crimes Before National Courts: Uganda’s International Crimes Division 4 (Jan. 2012), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Uganda, CICC, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Keppler, supra note 43, at 5. ↩
Id. at 12, 16, 19. ↩
James L. Cavallaro & Stephanie Erin Brewer, Reevaluating Regional Human Rights Litigation in the Twenty-First Century: The Case of the Inter-American Court, 102 Am. J. Int’l L. 768 (2008), available online. ↩
Frans Viljoen & Lirette Louw, State Compliance with the Recommendations of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights: 1992–2004, 101 Am. J. Int’l L. 1, 28–30 (Jan. 2007), available online. ↩
Obiora Chinedu Okafor, The African System on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Quasi-Constructivism, and the Possibility of Peacebuilding Within African States, 8 Int’l J. of Hum. Rts. 452 (Jan. 2004), available online. ↩
Reed Brody, Bringing a Dictator to Justice: The Case of Hissène Habré, 13 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 209 (May 2015), available online, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 210. ↩
African Union, Doc. Assembly/AU/3 (VII), Decision on the Hissène Habré Case and the African Union (Aug. 2006), available online, archived. ↩
Reed Brody, Brot für die Welt, Victims Bring a Dictator to Justice: The Case of Hissène Habré 6 (Jun. 2017), available online. ↩
Id. at 12. ↩
Id. at 6. ↩
Amnesty International, The State of the African Regional Human Rights Bodies and Mechanisms 2019–2020 at 7 (2020), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 46. ↩
Id. at 41. ↩
Id. ↩
Victim Over Verdict—How Exercising Universal Jurisdiction Means Promoting the Interests of Victims of International Atrocities
In this comment, I argue that in order to exercising universal jurisdiction, the International Criminal Court’s (ICC) Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) should prioritize the interests and desires of the victims of international atrocities. In Part I, I explain why the OTP should prioritize victims. In doing so, I define universal jurisdiction and explain why universal jurisdiction should be victim centric. Specifically, I argue that universal jurisdiction has been historically justified primarily due to its impact on victims of atrocities and therefore, victim involvement is crucial when the OTP wishes to carry out trials under universal jurisdiction. In Part II, I provide recommendations for how I envision the OTP can take a more victim-centric approach when prosecuting wrongdoers. I detail the spectrum of involvement victims could have in trials and provide a guideline for when the OTP should increase victim participation in trials.
I. Why the OTP Should Prioritize the Interest of Victims in Exercising Universal Jurisdiction
A. What Is Universal Jurisdiction?
Jurisdiction refers to the official power to make legal judgements and decisions. Most forms of jurisdiction require a direct connection between the State and the offense.1 Thus, jurisdiction is centered around the following principles:
Universal jurisdiction is distinct from these other forms because there is no such requirement of a direct connection between the State and the offense. Rather, universal jurisdiction permits States to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals, regardless of where the crime happened, the alleged perpetrator’s nationality or the citizenship of the victim. Because universal jurisdiction does not require a state to have any connection to the alleged criminal, it effectively enables one legal community to impose its laws upon another. For example, Belgium issued an arrest warrant against Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi, a politician in the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo for inciting genocide in 1998. However, the alleged acts Yerodia committed happened outside of Belgium, Yerodia was not a Belgian national, and none of the victims of Yerodia’s alleged offenses were Belgian nationals.3 So, when Belgium issued an arrest warrant against Yerodia, that was an exercise of universal jurisdiction.
The first widespread exercise of universal jurisdiction occurred as a result of the crime of piracy, which is the act of attacking or robbing ships at sea.4 Every state has long had legislative, adjudicatory, and enforcement jurisdiction over all piratical acts on the high seas.5 Universal jurisdiction also has strong historical roots in the slave trade. The universality principle expanded in the postwar trials of individuals who had committed various wartime offenses, including war crimes and crimes against humanity.6 Specifically, it was brought against Nazis following World War Two. Universal jurisdiction was exercised against Adolph Eichmann, a Nazi official who was abducted by Israeli agents in Argentina and brought to Israel for trial due to his war crimes or crimes against humanity.7
B. Universal Jurisdiction and Victims
To exercise universal jurisdiction is to protect the interest and desires of the victims of heinous crimes. This is because any justification for exercising universal jurisdiction is based on the impact of the crime on the victim. Since universal jurisdiction cannot be justified through the place where the crime happened or the citizenship of the people to whom the crime happened, universal jurisdiction is justified based on the “underlying nature of the crime.”8 More specifically, universal jurisdiction is commonly “explained on grounds that certain international crimes are so heinous that they “shock the conscience of humanity.”9
This justification was used in the earliest form of universal jurisdiction in piracy. Universal jurisdiction was applied in part because “pirates were considered to have waged war [against]…all states,”10 were considered the enemies of all humanity, and involved “particularly heinous and wicked acts of violence or depredation.”11 Similarly, slave trade practices were subjected to universal jurisdiction because of the “gravity of the crime against a person’s liberty.”12 This justification can be seen again in the case of Nazi Germany, where the “shared abhorrence [was felt by] all civilized nations for the serious criminal activities committed in the course of the Second World War”13 and the crimes were believed to be “so monstrous”14 that they could not be condoned.
This justification can be seen clearly in an example Devika Hovell outlines in her paper examining the authority of universal jurisdiction:
Devika’s example shows that it’s not just that certain territories agree to exercise jurisdiction over any crime and universal jurisdiction may magically apply. Rather, universal jurisdiction is based on an idea that there are certain kinds of crimes that intuitively feel ickier than others. I would argue that what makes piracy or the slave trade or crimes against humanity more despicable than something like adultery is how those crimes impact the victims. First, the impact lies in the number of victims. Where slave trade and piracy which may impact hundreds of thousands of people, adultery may impact a dozen or less. There is also a greater impact on what actually happens to the victims. Whereas slaves are brutalized, humiliated, raped, and physically beaten, pain resulting from adultery is almost certainly less severe.
This logic is spelled out explicitly in Miram Cohen’s paper describing the parallels between piracy and human trafficking in exercising universal jurisdiction. Cohen outlines two rationales for universal jurisdiction: (1) how widespread the effect of the crime and (2) the grave nature of the crime.16 Both of these rationales are directly connected to the protection of victims. The widespread nature of the crime relates to the sheer number of victims impacted. As Cohen points out, universal jurisdiction was exercised against pirates because their attacks were “made without regard to the vessel’s flag or the nationality of the victims.”17 The gravity justification relates to how serious the impact of the crime on the victim was. According to Cohen, these are crimes that are so harmful to victims that they endanger international peace and security.18 As such, universal jurisdiction envisages a responsibility on the part of the international community to protect people from human rights violations.
Universal jurisdiction is more than just protecting State interest. It’s about protecting people against states. It’s not about the States. It’s about people. It’s about victims. And in the eyes of exercising universal jurisdiction, it hardly matters who the victim is. Or where the victim lives. Or if the victim’s trauma has any economic impact on some occupied land. When all those factors are stripped away, all that’s left are the victims.
C. OTP and Victims
The OTP of the ICC cannot exercise universal jurisdiction without victims. First, victims are typically the ones alerting the ICC to the crimes. Victims also get the case off the ground by:
At the trial stage, victims also serve as key fact and emotional witnesses to the atrocities.
This extraordinary role in prosecutions makes sense. Cases against perpetrators literally would not exist without the victims. Victims are the ones most impacted by the crimes. They suffer the primary harm—the harm of the crime.20 Victims and their families must deal with the lifelong ramification of those crimes. Thus, “criminal law does not perform its role adequately, if it does not pay attention to the needs of the victim.”21
II. How the OTP Take a Victim-Centric Approach When Trying Cases
A. How Much Should Victims Be Involved in the Trials?
Throughout criminal law, there is a wide spectrum regarding how involved victims should be in prosecutions with two opposite extremes. On one side is the theory that victims should be minimally involved. This practice is most common in adversarial systems that “pit prosecutor against defendant”22 and in common law jurisdictions. These systems envision the victim’s role as being limited to that of a witness, who “can only speak if called by the prosecution (or defense) and can only answer questions that are posed to him or her.”23 On the opposite end of the spectrum is one where victims have extensive participatory rights. This is more common in civil law jurisdictions. For example, victims in Argentina can have a victim prosecutor who can do anything from submitting declarations to reviewing and presenting evidence to examining witnesses.24
B. The ICC v. the Prosecutor—Opposite Sides of the Spectrum
The ICC chambers and the OTP have often fallen on opposite sides of the victim participation spectrum. The ICC consistently favors more participatory rights for victims rather than less. According to the Rome Statute:
In practice, Pre-Trial Chamber II has interpreted this provision broadly, that is, in a way that allows for more victim participation. Pre-Trial Chamber II has held that Article 68(3) permits victims to participate in proceedings relating to the investigation of a situation and that victims are permitted to question witnesses and introduce evidence.26
On the other end of the spectrum is the Prosecutor. They have consistently opposed the Chamber’s liberal interpretation of the Rome Statute in favor of a narrower view that allows for limited victim participation. According to the OTP, “modalities of participation may not infringe upon the parties’ rights or overlap with the exclusive functions of the Prosecution.”27 This source of tension may be attributable to the fact that the Prosecutor’s express goals are to “hold perpetrators of grave crimes accountable for their actions.”28 As a result, the OTP is not so focused on doing what is best for the victims or ensuring victim participation, especially when doing so might mean sacrificing their case. In fact, to the Prosecutor, too much victim participation disrupts other important interests and functions, like getting a guilty verdict. The Prosecutor has opposed victim participation at the investigation and trial stage of a prosecution, on the basis that victims divert the focus of their investigation, frustrate the prosecution of the defendant, undermine the prosecutor’s trial strategy and potentially increase the cost of prosecution by prolonging proceedings.29
To be sure, it would be unfair to say that victims’ rights and desires do not influence the prosecutor in any way. At times, the prosecutor’s goals can be harmonious with victim’s interests. The first and former Prosecutor of the ICC Luis Moreno-Ocampo explicitly stated that he was “guided by the interests of the victims”30 in the 2004 Ugandan case. And even in instances where the prosecutor may be eager to get a conviction, victims are not doomed to be forgotten. In theory, aggressive prosecution policies, such as those guiding American domestic violence prosecutions, are grounded in the theory that they increase victim safety.31 However, there is a difference between having victims in mind when making decisions and prioritizing them. There is a difference between having goals to prosecute which may or may not happen to benefit victims and ensuring that victims are benefited. There is a difference between guided by the interest of victims and allowing those interests to dictate major decisions. I would argue that when attempting to exercise universal jurisdiction, the OTP should strive to do the latter.
C. What Should the OTP Do to Promote the Interest of the Victim?
Exercising universal jurisdiction may begin with a mental shift in the prosecutor. This could mean a shift in how the prosecutor conceptualizes the end goal of a trial. Rather than seeing the primary goal as imprisoning the perpetrator, the prosecutor could envision the primary goal is to make victims whole. Rather than seeing the trial as a pitched, two-sided battle,32 the prosecutor could see it as an opportunity to get justice for the victims. And rather than seeing victims as key witnesses or tools to accomplish the verdict, the prosecutor could see them as human beings with needs and feelings beyond the four corners of a courtroom.
Once the OTP reframes how he thinks of trials and victims within them, the OTP should determine what victims actually need and want out of the prosecution. Following a warning made by Timothy Kuhner in his paper discussing victims in the ICC, the OTP should be mindful to distinguish what victims actually want from what they should want, as relying on assumptions can lead to an Office that is paternalistic.33 The prosecutor should also be mindful that not all victims want the same thing and victims’ interests can be expected to vary between cultures.34 Then, the OTP should ask detailed questions and listen closely to what the victims say. They may find that some victims want protection.”35 Others may want offenders to be prosecuted and punished.36 Others may simply want to tell their stories about what happened.37 And others may want the autonomy and power to make meaningful decisions about what happens to the perpetrators.38 Whatever the desires, it’s the Prosecutor’s responsibility to find out what they are and how to best try a case to further those goals.
And once the prosecutor gets to the trial stage, the focus should not move away from those identified interests. Rather than asking about the ideal trial strategy for the defendant’s prosecution, the OTP’s main question should be this: what should happen in this trial that will accomplish the victim’s goals? This means the prosecutor should determine not merely what the defendant did but how those actions harmed the victim and how a prosecution can best serve them.
This also means the degree of victim participation exercised in any given trial should turn on the impact that participation has on the victim. In cases where the victim needs therapy, to restore their dignity, to contribute to the reconciliation process, or simply to tell their story, victim’s participation should be paramount. This can mean allowing the victim the chance to give an opening statement that may or may not help the trial but will give the victims a public space to tell their story and be validated. This should be the case even when doing so would negatively impact the trial strategy. In cases where the victim needs to heal outside of the process, where retelling that story may lead to retraumatization, the prosecutor should remove the victim from the process as much as possible. This should be the case even if doing so would mean the Prosecutor loses a key witness. In essence, when the Prosecutor has to choose between the verdict and the victim, the Prosecutor should choose the victim.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Kenneth C. Randall, Universal Jurisdiction Under International Law, 66 Tex. L. Rev. 785, 788 (1988), paywall. ↩
Miriam Cohen, The Analogy Between Piracy and Human Trafficking: A Theoretical Framework for the Application of Universal Jurisdiction, 16 Buff. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 201, 209–10 (2010), available online. ↩
Gabriel Bottini, Universal Jurisdiction After the Creation of the International Criminal Court, 36 N.Y.U. J. Int’l L. & Pol. 503, 508 (Dec. 2004), paywall. ↩
Randall, supra note 1, at 785. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Devika Hovell, The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction, 29 EJIL 427, 442 (May 2018), available online, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
John Reynolds, Universal Jurisdiction to Prosecute Human Trafficking: Analyzing the Practical Impact of a Jurisdictional Change in Federal Law, 34 Hastings Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 387, 392 (2011), available online. ↩
Randall, supra note 1, at 785. ↩
Reynolds, supra note 10, at 387. ↩
Hovell, supra note 7, at 440–41. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 427. ↩
Cohen, supra note 2, at 216. ↩
Id. at 217. ↩
Bottini, supra note 3, at 547. ↩
Hovell, supra note 7, at 450. ↩
Douglas Evan Beloof, The Third Model of Criminal Process: The Victim Participation Model, 1999 Utah L. Rev. 289, 318 (1999), available online. ↩
Timothy K. Kuhner, The Status of Victims in the Enforcement of International Criminal Law, 6 Or. Rev. Int’l L. 95, 134 (2004), available online. ↩
Charles P. Trumbull IV, The Victims of Victim Participation in International Criminal Proceedings, 29 Mich. J. Int’l L. 777, 781 (2008), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 68, available online. ↩
Trumbull IV, supra note 22, at 795. ↩
Id. at 796. ↩
J. Alex Little, Balancing Accountability and Victim Autonomy at the International Criminal Court, 38 Geo. J. Int’l L. 363, 368 (2007), available online. ↩
Trumbull IV, supra note 22, at 809. ↩
Little, supra note 28, at 378. ↩
Id. at 382. ↩
William T. Pizzi & Walter Perron, Crime Victims in German Courtrooms: A Comparative Perspective on American Problems, 32 SJIL 37, 55 (1996), paywall. ↩
Kuhner, supra note 21, at 139. ↩
Id. at 133. ↩
Id. at 134–35. ↩
Id. at 135. ↩
Id. at 137. ↩
Id. at 138. ↩
Universal Jurisdiction and Horizontal Complementarity
I. The Problem with Universal Jurisdiction
As the prompt for this question notes, states are becoming increasingly comfortable trying cases under universal jurisdiction. Yet, universal jurisdiction remains a frequently debated issue because its exercise involves infringing traditional state sovereignty.1 When a state invokes universal jurisdiction, it may exercise jurisdiction over an individual accused of committing certain heinous and widely condemned offences (such as genocide, crimes against humanity, etc.), even when no other recognised basis for jurisdiction exists (such as territorial jurisdiction over acts committed in the territory of the state).2 Thus, when exercised properly, universal jurisdiction confers on a state jurisdiction concurrent, not complementary, with the territorial jurisdiction of the state in which the alleged crimes were committed. Nothing in international law suggests that the invoking state must back down from exercising jurisdiction in the face of a competing claim from a state with a purportedly stronger nexus to the case (such as the territorial state).3 This idea is “rooted in the principle of sovereign equality.”4
The Rome Statute confronts a similar tension, but as between the International Criminal Court (ICC) and states parties, in Article 17. Titled “Issues of admissibility,” this article puts any case “being investigated or prosecuted by a State which has jurisdiction over it” outside the jurisdiction of the ICC, “unless the State is unwilling or unable genuinely to carry out the investigation or prosecution.”5 This is the principle of “vertical complementarity” between the ICC and states, and it resolves the problem of concurrent jurisdiction over crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression.6
However, there is no comparable “horizontal complementarity” principle in international law to resolve the problem of concurrent jurisdiction as between states.7 In a separate opinion in the 2002 International Court of Justice Arrest Warrant judgement, Judges Higgins, Kooijmans and Buergenthal did state that:
In the case itself, Belgium, as the bystander state, had allegedly offered the matter to the DRC to prosecute, and only when the offer was turned down did Belgium invoke universal jurisdiction.9 However, the opinion does not elaborate any further, and there appears to be a general consensus that the rule as elaborated by the judges is only “in the process of developing into a rule of customary international law.”10
The problem of concurrent jurisdiction is compounded by the absence of a transnational ne bis in idem principle. Domestic courts generally may not prosecute an individual for a crime for which they have been acquitted or convicted, but “it is widely accepted…that the principle is not applicable at the transnational level.”11 In a situation in which a territorial state or the state of nationality (a “nexus-state”) has already rendered a verdict (and even when the accused has served her sentence), a bystander state (which perhaps arrests the accused) may exercise “not complementary, but primary and original” jurisdiction.12
The absence of an international ne bis in idem principle, and the issue of concurrent jurisdiction disincentivize states that do want to exercise universal jurisdiction, because they might have to contend with an uncooperative territorial state that refuses to provide critical evidence to the bystander state, or because prosecuting the accused criminal might have undesirable geopolitical consequences.
In a paper on horizontal complementarity, Cedric Ryngaert at the Leuven University and Utrecht University examines the impact that the introduction of a “general ICC-style principle of complementarity” into customary international law would have.13 The full extent of such an impact is outside the scope of this comment. But, the idea of a principle of horizontal complementarity inspired by Article 17 vertical complementarity is intriguing. As Ryngaert explains, such a principle could be a solution to the problems that universal jurisdiction poses.14 In Part II of this comment, I will discuss proposed measures that the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) can take to facilitate the exercise of universal jurisdiction by states party to the Rome Statute. These steps would likely be part of a policy the OTP would adopt that would address the problem of uncooperative nexus states. Of course, these measures cannot solve the legal problem of concurrent jurisdiction or the lack of a ne bis in idem principle. In Part III of this comment, I explore one solution that would address this problem: the codification of horizontal complementarity in the Rome Statute.
II. Non-Systemic Solutions
Carsten Stahn has observed that “[c]omplementarity enhances observance through threat.”15 And, the OTP is often in a position to make credible threats. Ryngaert explains that the ICC has access to what he calls “multilateral bargaining power.”16 Broadly this is the “legitimacy with which the ICC is imbued” on account of the widespread ratification of the Rome Statute, an independent prosecutor, highly qualified staff, etc.17 A threat by the OTP to investigate a situation in a nexus state is often enough to prompt the state to act. In this case, the OTP’s threat of investigation and prosecution could be used to coerce a state to cooperate with another state invoking universal jurisdiction. This would be somewhat similar to the way the “Pinochet effect” works: In the wake of criminal proceedings in Europe in the 1990s, Chilean prosecutors demonstrated an increased willingness to investigate and prosecute crimes committed during Augusto Pinochet’s regime in Chile.18 National threats of prosecution tend not to have as much coercive power as an international threat of prosecution, because (1) an individual state would lack multilateral bargaining power, and (2) the nexus state may not want to cooperate with the threatening state for unrelated reasons.
Indeed, a threat of investigation and prosecution by the OTP would have more bite than prosecutions even by other international organizations because the ICC may uniquely prosecute sitting heads of state.19 Therefore, a state would likely be more willing to cooperate with a bystander state invoking universal jurisdiction (which cannot prosecute a head of state) if the ICC threatened to investigate.
Of course, threats would likely be necessary only in cases where the nexus state is in some way antagonized by the bystander state’s exercise of jurisdiction. Ryngaert notes that this is not often the case: “The home state will normally welcome [or at least “acquiesce” to] the prosecution by the bystander state.”20 Usually, the accused has fled his home state where he has been sidelined by a new regime that has seized power.
Where there is an absence of antagonism between the nexus state and bystander state, the OTP may step in to facilitate cooperation between the two states, in the name of positive complementarity. In its 2006 Report on Strategy, the OTP explained its expansive view of complementarity to include the “creat[ion of] an interdependent, mutually reinforcing international system of justice” that incorporates “national and international networks” and that “participates in a system of international cooperation.”21 In the context of universal jurisdiction, in which both the nexus state and bystander state are willing to cooperate with the ICC, “positive complementarity means that the Court and the state cooperate with a view to bringing international criminals to justice.”22
Ryngaert notes that “[f]or national prosecutors, it will always be an uphill struggle to mobilize resources for prosecutions that do not directly reduce domestic criminality.” The OTP can always step in and provide resources generally helpful for the prosecution of international criminals that the bystander state lacks. Under Article 93 of the Rome Statute, the ICC may, subject to the consent of all states involved, be a forum for the transfer of evidence relevant to the prosecution of the accused criminal under universal jurisdiction.23
III. Codification as a Systemic Solution
Neither the OTP’s case-specific coercive use of the ICC’s multilateral bargaining power, nor its actions in accordance with its mission of positive complementarity translate into an effective, systemic solution to the problems associated with universal jurisdiction. If making it easier for states to exercise universal jurisdiction is a desirable goal, the codification of horizontal complementarity into the Rome Statute might be an effective solution.
The legislatures of some member states already provide for a horizontal complementarity principle in their own domestic laws. The Code of Criminal Procedure in Germany provides that the federal prosecutor can renounce the prosecution of an act that violates international law if that act is prosecuted by a state on whose territory the office was committed, whose national is suspected of having committed it, or whose national was harmed by it.24 Belgium has a similar provision in its criminal code.25 Neither provision, however, forces the prosecutor to adhere to the principle of horizontal complementarity, but only leaves the matter to her discretion. No other state has a similar provision in their criminal code.26
In her paper on universal jurisdiction and the ICC, Laura Burens explains that a form of horizontal complementarity modelled after Article 17 of the Rome Statute could be used “to guarantee a coherent application of a subsidiary universality principle” between member states of the ICC.27 This “subsidiary universality principle” would authorize a bystander state to step in only when it has “serious reason to believe that the territorial state is manifestly unwilling or unable to prosecute the alleged offender.”28
An amendment to the Rome Statute of this nature would require an amendment under Article 122, according to which any state party may propose the amendment, which would then have to be accepted by consensus, failing which the Assembly of States Parties (ASP) or a Review Conference must adopt them by a two-thirds majority.29 But the amendment process would likely not represent a substantial hurdle. Burens argues that by ratifying the Rome Statute, “member states have indirectly also accepted a complementarity regime on the inter-state level,” because they have “subscribed to the vision of justice underlying the complementarity principle.”30 Even if the acceptance of the complementarity regime does not automatically translate into a legal obligation to respect horizontal complementarity, it does highlight that mutual trust and recognition exists between the member states, by virtue of their shared mission to prosecute mass atrocities, at least within their own territories. If they fail to comply with their obligations, other member states should be able to step in.31 The ICC can play a crucial role here to guarantee that the exercise of jurisdiction by bystander member states is fair, coherent and transparent. An amendment to the Statute codifying horizontal complementarity is therefore in the declared interests of bystander and nexus states.
Horizontal complementarity would not make for a particularly controversial amendment for another reason: it describes obligations and expectations of states parties very similar to those described by the principle of vertical complementarity, as laid out in Article 17 of the Rome Statute. ICC-facilitated horizontal complementarity leans into a passive complementarity reading of Article 17. It provides an alternative to the ICC taking a case another member state wishes to prosecute (and when the territorial state cannot or will not prosecute). The ICC can therefore delegate its cases to member states that, by virtue of their membership, subscribe to the same vision as the ICC.
Codification would solve the problems of concurrent jurisdiction and the absence of a ne bis in idem principle, because a mutually subscribed to third-party—the ICC—would mediate the transfer of the case from nexus state to bystander state. This mediation would require that the nexus state respect the ne bis in idem principle in accordance with provisions analogous to those in Article 20 of the Statute. Article 20 provides that:
The Court may vice versa not try a crime that has already resulted in conviction or acquittal.33 In addition, the Court could facilitate negotiations between the bystander state and nexus state, in order to ensure that the bystander state’s exercise of universal jurisdiction is appropriate and fair. In case of a extreme dispute that the OTP and the Court do not wish to or cannot resolve, settlement could be found via procedures provided for in Article 119, which permits referral of disputes between states parties to the ASP and the International Court of Justice.34
Finally, in the interests of fairness and transparency, the ICC would be able to monitor proceedings in the bystander court and demand information, that it could share with the nexus state, per Article 18.35 If the monitoring OTP determines that the bystander state is not properly trying the case, or is unjustly delaying the trial, the ICC can always appropriate the case from the bystander state, in accordance with Article 17. In the normal exercise of universal jurisdiction, no similar mechanism in international law exists that would guarantee that universal jurisdiction is being exercised properly.
IV. Conclusion
The OTP has some means by which it could assist states that seek to exercise universal jurisdiction. The OTP could harness the ICC’s multilateral bargaining power to issue credible threats of investigation and prosecution to uncooperative nexus states. And when the state does cooperate, the OTP could facilitate information sharing between the states and provide resources helpful for the prosecution to the bystander state.
But, as Burens notes:
These risks would be practically neutralized, at least as between member states, if the principle of horizontal complementarity were amended into the Rome Statute along the lines of Article 17 vertical complementarity. Not only would this eliminate the problems of concurrent jurisdiction inherent in the exercise of universal jurisdiction, but would contribute to a harmonization of the prosecution of international crimes. Under a horizontal complementarity regime, the ICC would serve as a forum for the efficient and fair distribution of relevant criminal trials among its member states, especially when the nexus state and bystander state wish to cooperate. The exercise of universal jurisdiction is becoming more common, but it requires the systemic intervention of the OTP, and the ICC generally, to transform universal jurisdiction into a powerful mechanism for prosecuting mass atrocities.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Cedric Ryngaert, Horizontal Complementarity, in The International Criminal Court and Complementarity: From Theory to Practice 855, 857 (Carsten Stahn & Mohamed M. El Zeidy eds., 2011), paywall, doi. ↩
Jeffrey L. Dunoff, Monica Hakimi, Steven R. Ratner & David Wippman, International Law: Norms, Actors, Process 290 (Feb. 1, 2020), paywall. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 857. ↩
Id. at 858. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 17(1)(a), available online. ↩
Id. Art. 5
(limiting the ICC’s jurisdiction to these crimes). ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 858. ↩
Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgement, 2002 I.C.J. Rep. ¶ 59 (Feb. 14, 2002) (separate opinion by Rosalyn Higgins, Pieter Kooijmans & Thomas Buergenthal), available online. ↩
Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgement, 2002 I.C.J. Rep. ¶ 16 (Feb. 14, 2002), available online. ↩
Laura Burens, Universal Jurisdiction Meets Complementarity: An Approach Towards a Desirable Future Codification of Horizontal Complementarity Between the Member States of the International Criminal Court, 27 Crim. L. Forum 75, 77 (2016), paywall, doi. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 860–61. ↩
Id. at 861. ↩
Id. at 860. ↩
Id. ↩
Carsten Stahn, Complementarity: A Tale of Two Notions, 19 Crim. L. Forum 87, 97–98 (2008), available online. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 863. ↩
Id. at 862–63. ↩
See Naomi Roht-Arriaza, The Pinochet Effect: Transnational Justice in the Age of Human Rights (2005), paywall. ↩
See, e.g., Kenyatta Appears at ICC in Hague for Landmark Hearing, BBC News, Oct. 8, 2014, available online
(discussing the situation in Kenya, in which President Uhuru Kenyatta was subject to an ICC indictment).
Press Release, Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, ICC Prosecutor Presents Case Against Sudanese President, Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, for Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes in Darfur (Jul. 14, 2008), available online
(discussing the situation in Darfur, Sudan, in which the ICC twice issued warrants for the arrest of then-President Omar al-Bashir). ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 864. ↩
Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy 5 (Sep. 14, 2006), available online. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 865. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 5, at Art. 93(10). ↩
Strafprozessordnung [StPO] § 153(f)(2)(4) (in force Jan. 1, 2017) (ger.), available online. ↩
Belgian Code of Criminal Procedure and Civil Procedure, Art. 10(1 bis), Art. 12 bis (entered into force 2003) (Dut.), available online. ↩
Ryngaert, supra note 1, at 873. ↩
Burens, supra note 10, at 78–80
(outlining what a provision codifying horizontal complementarity might look like). ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 5, at Art. 122(2). ↩
Burens, supra note 10, at 81. ↩
Amnesty International, Initial Recommendations for a Convention on Crimes Against Humanity 7 (Apr. 28, 2015), available online
(explaining that the Preamble to the Rome Statute acknowledges that the existence of universal jurisdiction over crimes against humanity “and the duty, not just the power or right, to exercise this jurisdiction for these crimes”). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 5, at Art. 20(2). ↩
Id. Art. 20(3). ↩
Id. Art. 119(2). ↩
Id. Article 18(5)
(providing that on deferral of a matter to the nexus state, “the Prosecutor may request that the State concerned periodically inform the Prosecutor of the progress of its investigations and any subsequent prosecutions. States Parties shall respond to such requests without undue delay.”). ↩
Burens, supra note 10, at 96. ↩
I. Introduction
The principle of complementarity aims at granting jurisdiction to a subsidiary body when the main body fails to exercise its primacy jurisdiction.1 In the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), this would mean interfering only when the national jurisdiction was unwilling or unable to prosecute pursuant to Article 17 of the Rome Statute.2
One of the major issues that the ICC has been facing since its creation is the case load. With such a vast jurisdictional reach, the ICC, unfortunately, cannot take on every international crime around the world, and often finds itself prioritizing the most severe ones. The issue, however, is that it could give leaders the perception that there is a high chance that the ICC will enable their violations to go unnoticed. This comment will seek to argue that the ICC can surmount this challenge through the principle of complementarity, which will both ease its workload while still ensuring criminal prosecutions. This principle can be applied by collaboration with regional organizations, which could assume jurisdiction in certain circumstances. According to Article 87(6) of the Rome Statute,3 the ICC:
Regional organizations can significantly contribute to the ICC’s work.
Regional organizations are defined as a subcategory of international organization and can be financial and nonfinancial institutions.4 They consist of those supranational institutions whose members are governments or monetary authority of economies that are located in a specific region of the world.5 This comment will mainly focus on regional courts, and the extent to which the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) may work with such courts to develop further the principle of complementarity by giving them jurisdiction to prosecute certain crimes. Firstly, this comment will explore the ability of regional courts to act as regional ICC s by looking into the Malabo Protocol and its suggested African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR). Secondly, it will explore the possibility of establishing regional circuit chambers within regional courts to make the ICC system more accessible. Thirdly, it will provide a discussion on the interpretation of Article 17 as including regional organizations. Finally, this comment will conclude on the thought that, while regional courts should be considered for purposes of complementarity under Article 17, their negative consequences, such as fragmentation of international criminal law, must not be undermined.
II. Role 1: A Regional ICC: The African Court of Justice and Human Rights
In October 2016, South Africa withdrew from the Rome Statute and mentioned, in a statement, that:
The South African withdrawal was revoked a few months later in March 2017 after their High Court declaring the withdrawal “unconstitutional and invalid”.7 However, this still shows the general desire to have a regional court in Africa to prosecute similar crimes as the ICC. This was echoed by several African states threatening withdrawal due to an alleged “African bias”, with most cases at the ICC targeting African states. South Africa’s mention of strengthening the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights is misleading since that court’s jurisdiction is limited by the Court’s founding Treaty to determining human rights cases and disputes relating to the interpretation of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights.8 It thus cannot be a regional alternative to the ICC.
What could work as a regional ICC would be the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR). In June 2014, AU Assembly of Heads of State and Government met in Malabo and adopted the Protocol on the Statute of the ACJHR which would give the ACJHR jurisdiction to prosecute crimes under international law and transnational crimes.9 If the Protocol came into force, the ACJHR would have jurisdiction to try crimes like genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, aggression as well as piracy, terrorism, corruption, money laundering, mercenarism, trafficking in persons, etc.10 Some of these crimes have been of great concern to Africa such as mercenarism and corruption, which have not generated significant international attention.11 It would thus be an African regional criminal court operating akin to the ICC but with narrowly defined geographical scope.
The AU had a Draft Decision on Africa’s Relationship with the ICC which stated that the AU:
The only country that acted on this AU decision is Kenya, which proposed an amendment to Preambular ¶ 10 of the Rome Statute to read:
It would be possible in theory for the Prosecutor or the ICC to seek information or cooperation from the ACJHR. Article 46L(3) of the Amended ACJHR Statute also permits the ACJHR to “seek the cooperation or assistance of regional or international courts, non-state parties or co-operating partners of the African Union and may conclude Agreements for that purpose.” However, this would depend on the AU’s relationship with the ICC, which is currently strenuous. In 2010, the AU rejected a proposal by the ICC to open a liaison office in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and the AU consistently called on its members not to cooperate with the ICC.14
Following the Malabo Protocol would ensure complementarity because the Court would be a regional organization with jurisdiction to prosecute international crimes, thus easing the ICC and OTP’s workload. The burden would thus be shared as the Prosecutor and judges could engage in a particularized inquiry to determine which forum is most appropriate in a given case by looking at factors relevant to the interests of the communities each institution represents in adjudicating the case. A possibility would be to have a case transferred to a regional organization in the interests of justice, pursuant to Article 53 of the Rome Statute15 if it is decided to be a better forum to try the offence. The regional court should also have the ability to order states to prosecute, as is the case with the Inter-American Court, rather than merely recommending them to do so. In this case, the ICC would still remain present as additional back-up for whenever national courts are unable and/or unwilling to prosecute pursuant to Article 17 of the Rome Statute.16 The Inter-American Court has also implemented its mandate to include supervising the implementation of its ruling and the case remains seized until there has been full compliance.17 This would be a form of quasi-criminal jurisdiction, which, according to Huneeus, is defined as “the practice by an international body of ordering, monitoring, and guiding national prosecutions.”18 This could assist further in complementarity by enabling prosecutions at the domestic level, which would reduce the need for the ICC to get involved. Jalloh attempts to explore how complementarity might look like in the context of this African Court, by exploring the idea that complementarity would involve first, whether the national authority handled the case or whether it referred it to the regional African Court.19 Then, the ICC would assess whether the regional court had the type of genuine investigations and prosecutions that would be inadmissible to the ICC under Article 17.20 Under this interpretation, there would not be a need to amend the Rome Statute.
This, however, may be unrealistic21 especially since very few states have ratified the Malabo protocol. Furthermore, its immunities clause poses an issue. Article 46A bis gives immunity to serving heads of state or anybody acting in such a capacity. This contravenes Article 27 of the Rome Statute22 and, therefore, clashes with laws from nations such as Kenya and South Africa, which have adapted their internal legislation to the Rome Statute.23 On the other hand, Nel suggests that despite the challenge posed by the immunity clause, this may be circumvented by the principle of complementarity, with the ICC exercising its jurisdiction over serving heads of state where African states were unable to do so due to the immunity granted by the Malabo Protocol.24 Even then, however, the immunities clause is not the only hurdle faced by the Protocol. One challenge is that of funding. The Protocol lacks a funding breakdown, and it remains unclear where the money will come from.25 Furthermore, the African parties’ membership to both the ICC and the ACJHR would create a double burden in addition to domestic obligations.26 Even if the Malabo Protocol was to come to fruition, it is likely that it would want nothing to do with the ICC, particularly due to the recurring critique that the ICC has an African bias. The AU’s aim is to establish a regional criminal court which could keep the ICC out of Africa.27 The initial draft of the suggested court contained a specific reference to complementarity with the ICC, but this was removed from later drafts, likely due to the existing tensions between the AU and the ICC.28 Having an ICC for Africa would reduce the OTP’s workload since the ICC has mainly prosecuted in Africa. However, it could encourage African States, which constitute roughly 1/3 of the ICC’s state parties, to withdraw, which would, in turn, risk the ICC’s legitimacy. On the other hand, it could be argued that the threat to withdrawal may be quite far-fetched since there have been some African cases that have been self-referred (such as Uganda regarding Kony) which demonstrates that there is some will to cooperate with the ICC.29
Therefore, regional courts could be a solution to complementarity, provided they create an authority for individual criminal prosecution, which is at the heart of international criminal law. They could be a more suitable form to prosecute transactional offenses that are a particular issue within that region, in situations where the state and its neighbors face the same or similar challenges.30 Regional courts enable the sharing and implementation of common values that are region-specific. They are also more practical since they would be closer to the state where the conduct occurred, thus bringing justice closer to the people. In the context of Africa, regional courts would also enable a push back on the African bias criticism faced by the ICC. As mentioned by the Kenyan delegation:
However, due to the novel concept of having a regional court having the same subject matter jurisdiction as the ICC, there is a need for statutory guidance that would resolve conflicts relating to overlapping jurisdiction,32 as well as an explanation on the relationship between both courts regarding complementarity.
III. Role 2: Regional Circuit Chambers
Another role regional courts could play would be to have circuit chambers established in those courts to facilitate more inclusive access to the ICC system and more effective implementation of a “localized version of international criminal law.”33 This could be useful since, rather than going to the ICC, the case can go to the regional court. It can then be taken on by the circuit chamber who would be more apt to not only apply the Rome Statute but also understand better the circumstances and challenges faced by the region since it would be closer to the state where the conduct occurred.34 This proposal was also echoed by Magliveras who argued that such a format would be based on the circuits/districts existing in the federal court system in the United States of America.35 In this case, the ICC’s judicial functions would be carried out by chambers, and having more chambers is required for the efficient management of the workload.36 Each regional branch would then have a dedicated bench and a dedicated Prosecutor, with each circuit following the current ICC institutional structure, with a Pre-Trial Chamber, a Trial Chamber, an OTP and a Registry, and would sit in one of the contracting parties in the region.37 The Prosecutor in each of these circuits would have the position of a deputy Prosecutor, entitled to carry out any of the acts required of the Prosecutor under the Rome Statute.38
As a result of this structure, the ICC’s role could be that of a Court of Appeal to accept appeals on points of law submitted from the regional courts. Under this framework, according to Jia, the current regime of the Statute under Article 13 will remain intact but may be augmented to enhance its efficacy so that the ICC would accept Article 13 cases but also appeals from regional courts.39 This would be more efficient since it would enable the ICC to conserve its resources by essentially remaining intact but only expanding its Article 13 provision to allow appeals from regional courts. In this case, there needs to be regional treaties signed and ratified that would enable states to confer jurisdiction to a regional court and intend appeals from this court to go to the ICC.40
An issue here is that it may be unrealistic to assume that the ICC would be able to implement circuit chambers in regional courts because doing so requires time, personnel to train in order to place them in those chambers and funding (which is one the ICC’s main recurring challenges). Furthermore, it could be argued that having a portion of the ICC in many regions will lead to a lack of uniformity, which could then hinder the development of international law. Also, for this change to occur, the Rome Statute would need to be amended under Article 17 since this would be a change of an exclusively institutional nature.41 The proposal would have to be accepted by consensus, which, if not attained, the ASP or a Review Conference must adopt them by a two-thirds majority of all contracting parties. Finally, having states sign and ratify a treaty conferring that jurisdiction to that regional court will pose a hurdle since it would be based on the states’ initiative to do so, and there could be some issues with uniformity of case prosecutions if some states in that region ratify the treaty but not others.
An advantage, however, is that it would ease the workload of the OTP. This arguably seems to be a promising solution to ending impunity since, rather than having one ICC handling 123 countries, this would be broken down by region. The ICC’s workload would be diminished because it would act as a court of appeal. Having a somewhat mini-ICC in many regions will ensure that regional systems are closer to the goals of the Rome Statute and will hopefully enable more prosecutions since the scope would be smaller. For example, having a regional circuit chamber for Africa would mean that there would not be any need to create the ACJHR, and instead that circuit chamber would be tasked with investigating, prosecuting, and holding trials for international crimes committed within the territory of African States that are parties to the Rome Statute. This would also have the advantage of pushing back the African bias criticism since the Court would take into consideration African traditions and values while understanding better the challenges faced by the region. It would also have a practical advantage since victims, witnesses and defendants would not need to travel as far as the Hague for justice to be served.
A. Which Regional Courts Should the ICC Cooperate With?
According to Sainati, the Prosecutor should only cooperate with courts that are supported by transnational social movements, which she defines as:
If the court is supported by transnational social movements, then the Prosecutor may make a decision about when a regional trial is more likely to serve the ICC’s larger goal of ending impunity and promoting compliance with international criminal law.43 This is because such regional courts would likely increase the likelihood of domestication of international rules.44 This would be an advantage because one of the issues faced by the ICC is that of enforcement. For example, Kenya’s noncompliance compromised the Prosecution’s ability to thoroughly investigate the charges.45 Using regional courts does not mean that the Prosecutor will always defer to regional courts, but rather, he would identify when regional courts are better positioned to domesticate international legal principles and secure compliance with international criminal law.46 Therefore, in this case, it could be possible to argue that the Prosecutor would then be transferring the court from the international to the regional level on the basis of interests of justice under Article 17.
IV. The Interpretation of Article 17 as Including Regional Organizations
Article 17 of the Rome Statute mentions that a case is:
Based on the plain text of the provision of Article 17, complementarity thus focuses on states and makes no mention of regional organizations. The Court has not yet decided whether an investigation conducted outside of a state, for example by regional organizations, could satisfy Article 17.47 As mentioned above, the ACJHR contains no express insight into the relationship between this court and the ICC.48 It only mentions complementarity to national courts and to the Courts of the Regional Economic Communities49 but does not mention complementarity to international tribunals.
According to Jackson, a case being genuinely investigated or prosecuted by a lawfully constituted regional tribunal or court may be regarded as a prosecution by a State such that the case would be inadmissible before the ICC under Article 17.50 Tiba echoes this by citing CB Murungu’s argument that while the Rome Statute does not mention regional criminal chambers, it can be contended that regional courts have jurisdiction to try international crimes.51 This may be done through “a progressive interpretation of positive complementarity” which could “infer that even regional criminal courts could have jurisdiction over international crimes within the ICC jurisdiction.”52 Under this argument, Article 17 of the Rome Statute can be interpreted to extend to regional criminal courts. Kielsgard and Ip explore this relationship by explaining that the ICC has recognized the jurisdictional priority of other international tribunals such as the International Criminal Tribunal of the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal of Rwanda as subsidiary organs of the United Nations, as well as that of hybrid tribunals such as Special Tribunals for Lebanon, Sierra Leone, and Cambodia.53 Cases taken on by these tribunals would have been inadmissible if they were already handled by national prosecutions.54 A difference, however, is that these tribunals were established by the United Nations Security Council and were not regional courts.55 These tribunals are given priority under the Charter,56 but no such priority is given to regional courts. As mentioned above, the ICC and the ACJHR, as well as any other potential regional courts with the capacity to assist the ICC under complementarity, would need to determine how both courts relate to each other.57 The ICC assumes the power to determine questions of admissibility and jurisdiction under Article 19(1), and according to Article 18, the ICC also has the power to engage in “preliminary rulings regarding admissibility.”58 As mentioned by the Chamber in Prosecutor v. Kony, it has the authority to “interpret and apply the provisions governing the complementarity regime” once its jurisdiction has been triggered.59 This was mentioned before the rise of other complementarity regimes or regional courts and the decision did not involve any issues relating to the ICC and a regional court.60 However, this seems to be the most probable solution. Under this suggestion, the first step to achieving complementarity by collaboration with regional courts would be to have the ICC explain how regional courts relate to the ICC for complementarity to be of use.
The provision could also be interpreted as states conferring jurisdiction to regional courts.61 This argument would somewhat mirror the one used in the context of the Gaza conflict whereby the Palestinian National Authority, which has prosecutorial authority in some parts of the territories, conferred such jurisdiction to the Prosecutor.62 On the other hand, according to Oslo, they were handing over jurisdiction that they did not have. This counterargument then would not apply here since, in this case, the states would be handing over jurisdiction that they do have to regional courts.63 On the other hand, that is not what the Statute says, so the question would be whether, by interpreting it that way, we would be stretching its application. If, in the course of making those amendments, states make it clear that they are conferring jurisdiction to a regional entity with the intent to satisfy Article 17, then this could be a way to interpret the provision without amending the Statute.64 If Article 17 was to extend to regional courts, then they would be held to the unwilling or unable standard of Article 17(1)(b), whereby the ICC would only intervene and assume jurisdiction if the regional courts were unwilling or unable to prosecute.
V. Conclusion
Relativists argue that the ICC is doomed to fail for being too culturally distant from its intended beneficiaries.65 Due to the lack of proximity, there is a lack of understanding and, thus, alienation from the very communities it seeks to serve.66 A remote ICC will not be “informed by diverse perspectives” and will not be able to “promote post-conflict reconciliation or the rebuilding on the rule of law.”67 A solution to this problem would be to develop complementarity at the regional level, whereby courts are closer to the situation country and may understand the challenges faced by the region better.
However, when assessing this possibility, it is also important to analyze potential drawbacks, namely fragmentation of International Criminal Law.68 If there is conflict in the norms developed in Africa, for example, with those in the ICC, this would be undesirable especially for the development of a Universal International Criminal Justice system. The application of inconsistent interpretations to decisions adjudicating war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, crime of aggression, threaten unity. Without a high court, the decisions of any regional court, or at least of that court’s own appellate body, would be binding and not subject to review for uniformity.69 There is a major risk of having international crimes that are universal in nature lose their sense of universality and global condemnation as they come to have regional variation.
Therefore, while working with regional courts under the principle of complementarity might enable the OTP to reduce their workload, the involvement of the ICC at some stage of the process would be crucial to reduce potential harmful consequences of the regionalization of International Criminal Law.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Xavier Philippe, The Principles of Universal Jurisdiction and Complementarity: How Do the Two Principles Intermesh?, Int’l Rev. Red Cross (Jun. 2006), available online. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 17, available online. ↩
Id. Art. 87(6). ↩
Currency Union Technical Expert Group, Draft Follow-Up Paper #6, IMF, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Id. ↩
Michael Masutha, South Africa Minister of Justice, Speech on ICC and Sudanese President Omar Al Bashir (Oct. 21, 2016), available online. ↩
Norimitsu Onishi, South Africa Reverses Withdrawal From International Criminal Court, N.Y. Times, Mar. 8, 2017, paywall. ↩
Id. ↩
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, Art. 28A (2014), available online
(adopting an amendment protocol on Jun. 27, 2014 by The African Union Assembly to forge ahead with the establishment of an international criminal section in the proposed African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights). ↩
Id. ↩
Charles Chernor Jalloh, The Place of the African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in the Prosecution of Serious Crimes in Africa, in The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Developments and Challenges 57, 93 (Charles Chernor Jalloh, Kamari Maxine Clarke & Vincent Obisienunwo Orlu Nmehielle eds., Jul. 13, 2020), available online. ↩
The Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission of Kenya, African Union Documents—Draft Decision on Africa’s Relationship with the ICC (Oct. 12, 2013), available online. ↩
Fabrice Tambe Endoh, African Union and the Politics of Selective Prosecutions at the International Criminal Court, 2020 AJICJ 3, 31 (2020), available online, doi. ↩
Jalloh, supra note 11, at 104. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 2, at Art. 53. ↩
Charles Chernor Jalloh, The Place of the African Criminal Court in the Prosecution of Serious Crimes in Africa, in The International Criminal Court and Africa 318 (Charles Chernor Jalloh & Ilias Bantekas eds., 2017), paywall, doi. ↩
Alexandra Valeria Huneeus, International Criminal Law by Other Means: The Quasi-Criminal Jurisdiction of the Human Rights Courts, 107 Am. J. Int’l L. 1, 9 (Jan. 2013), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Jalloh, supra note 11, at 98. ↩
Id. ↩
Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Unpublished Remarks to UCLA Law School Class Attended by Author (Nov. 16, 2022). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 2, at Art. 19. ↩
Jalloh, supra note 11, at 61. ↩
Michelle Nel, Can a Regional Court Be a Viable Alternative to the ICC in Africa?, The Conversation (Aug. 7, 2018), available online. ↩
Sarah P. Nimigan, Exceptional or Exceptionalism? The Malabo Protocol and “Regional Complementarity”, 11 (Working Paper, 2017), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Sasha Dominik Dov Bachmann & Eda Luke Nwibo, Pull and Push—Implementing the Complementarity Principle of the Rome Statute of the ICC within the African Union: Opportunities and Challenges, 43 Brook. J. Int’l L. 457, 466 (2018), available online. ↩
Jalloh, supra note 11, at 97. ↩
Id. ↩
Jalloh, supra note 16, at 318. ↩
Nimigan, supra note 25, at 4. ↩
Kristen Rau, Jurisprudential Innovation or Accountability Avoidance? The International Criminal Court and Proposed Expansion of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, 97 Minn. L. Rev. 669, 677 (Dec. 2012), available online. ↩
Bing Bing Jia, The International Criminal Court’s Relations with the United Nations, ICC Forum (Jun. 28, 2018), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Konstantinos D. Magliveras, Two Key Reforms: Break Up the ICC Into Regional Chambers and Allow the ICC to Impose Monetary Fines on Recalcitrant Contracting Parties, ICC Forum (Jul. 9, 2018), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Jia, supra note 33. ↩
Richard H. Steinberg, Private Conversation with Author (Dec. 5, 2022). ↩
Id. ↩
Tatiana E. Sainati, Divided We Fall: How the International Criminal Court Can Promote Compliance with International Law by Working with Regional Courts, 49 Vand. J. Transnat’l L. 191, 215 (Jan. 2016), available online. ↩
Id. at 243. ↩
Id. at 197. ↩
Id. at 200. ↩
Id. at 214. ↩
Kaveri Vaid, What Counts as “State Action” Under Article 17 of the Rome Statute? Applying the ICC’s Complementarity Test to Non-Criminal Investigations by the United States into War Crimes in Afghanistan, 44 N.Y.U. J. Int’l L. & Pol. 573, 575 (2012), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Miles Jackson, Regional Complementarity: The Rome Statute and Public International Law, 14 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1061, 1061 (May 4, 2016), available online, doi. ↩
Firew Kebede Tiba, Regional International Criminal Courts: An Idea Whose Time Has Come?, 17 Cardozo J. Conflict Resol. 521, 545 (Jan. 10, 2016), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Mark D. Kielsgard & Ken Gee-kin Ip, Prioritizing Jurisdiction in the Competing Regimes of the International Criminal Court and the African Court of Justice and Human Rights: A Way Forward, 35 B.U. Int’l L.J. 285, 294 (Apr. 2017), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 294–95.
(Failure to comply with international tribunals established by the U.N. Security Council would violate U.N. Charter Article 41 and Chapter 7. No such priority is given to regional courts). ↩
Id. at 295. ↩
Id. ↩
The Prosecutor v. Joseph Kony, Vincent Otti, Okot Odhiambo, Dominic Ongwen, ICC-02/04-01/05, Decision on the Admissibility of the Case Under Article 19(1) of the Statute, ¶ 45 (PTC II, Mar. 10, 2009), available online. ↩
Kielsgard & Ip, supra note 53, at 295. ↩
Steinberg, supra note 40. ↩
Emily C. Barbour & Matthew C. Weed, Cong. Research Serv., R4116, The International Criminal Court: Jurisdiction, Extradition, and U.S. Policy 17–18 (Mar. 16, 2010), available online.
(In 2009, the PNA lodged a declaration pursuant to Article 12(3) of the Rome Statute, accepting ICC ad hoc jurisdiction over alleged crimes committed in December 2008/2009 between Israeli and Hamas forces in the Gaza strip. The ICC’s jurisdiction would come from the PNA’s declaration since neither Israel nor the PNA are State Parties to the Rome Statute. The issue was that the PNA has not been recognized as a state which means it cannot confer jurisdiction).
See also Should the ICC Investigate War Crimes in Gaza?, ICC Forum (Sep. 1, 2010), available online. ↩
Steinberg, supra note 40. ↩
Id. ↩
Sainati, supra note 42, at 210. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Jalloh, supra note 11, at 105. ↩
William W. Burke-White, Regionalization of International Criminal Law Enforcement: A Preliminary Exploration, 38 Tex. Int’l L.J. 729, 756 (Jul. 1, 2003), available online. ↩
How Regional Organizations Can Support Complementarity: The Asian Development Bank and Judicial Reform
Introduction
The principle of complementarity requires institutional capacity at the national level to prosecute the crimes set forth by Article 5 of the Rome Statute (Article 5 Crimes). The International Criminal Court (ICC) was designed to be a court of last resort, not the only court. Of course, many States Parties to the Rome Statute lack the requisite institutional capacity to investigate and prosecute these crimes.1 While the ICC is not set up to build judicial capacity among states, perhaps help can come from another group: regional organizations. Regional organizations come in many forms, from international judicial bodies2 to development organizations.3 They often hold unique places in each region and have varying levels of regional influence. This comment explores the way that one regional organization, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), may help build regional judicial capacity to prosecute core international crimes and in turn strengthen complementarity in the Asia-Pacific region. I have chosen to focus on this region as it is underrepresented in the list of States Parties to the Rome Statute. Further, I have selected the ADB for a case study as its broad financial and diplomatic ties across the region may make it well-positioned to facilitate judicial capacity-strengthening programs.
Part I of this comment discusses in detail why the ADB is well-positioned to build judicial capacity for prosecuting core international crimes in Asia-Pacific states. This Part focuses on the ADB’s ties to its member states and its existing judicial reform efforts under its Law and Policy Reform Program. Part II explores how the ADB would implement a judicial reform program among its member states. As an example, this part draws on ADB’s ongoing judicial reform project among Pacific states aimed at increasing judicial capacity in those states to prosecute crimes involving gender-based violence. Part III identifies challenges the ADB would face in implementing this work. This section analyzes how the ADB’s relationships with Japan, the United States, and China would affect a judicial reform project. I also address the challenges facing internal stakeholders in justifying this work within the economic mission of the ADB. I find that the ADB has a strong existing framework to implement a judicial reform effort aimed at building capacity to prosecute core international crimes but will likely need to overcome internal rather than external political obstacles.
I. Why the ADB is Well-Positioned to Build Regional Prosecutorial Capacity
The ADB was established in 1966. The organization was born from a recognition among Asian leaders that regional economic cooperation and financing would facilitate development in the Asia-Pacific region.4 Today, the ADB has sixty-eight member states—forty-nine from within the Asia-Pacific region.5 Of those forty-nine regional members, nineteen are also States Parties to the Rome Statute.6
At its core, the ADB is an economic institution seeking a “prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Asia and the Pacific.”7 But while its ends are ultimately economic, its means are varied. As part of its development strategy, the ADB seeks judicial reform among its member states. The ADB accomplishes this work largely through its Office of the General Counsel (OGC) and its Law and Policy Reform Program (LPR program).8 While the LPR program has been justified in various ways over the years,9 it represents an institutional understanding that building rule of law is a key component of the development process. Recent examples of this work include the ADB’s efforts to strengthen judicial capacity in Mongolia.10 The goal of that work was to provide technical assistance to “Mongolia criminal court judges to render informed decisions on court cases involving economic crimes.”11 Another example is the ADB’s work with judges and prosecutors in Afghanistan. There, the ADB partnered with the Supreme Court of Afghanistan and the Attorney General’s Office to train 140 judges and prosecutors “on laws specific to gender sensitization, access to justice, and violence against women.”12 While the OGC stopped publishing annual reports of its LPR program, a survey of the ADB’s efforts in this area from 1990 to 2007 found that by 2007, the ADB managed over four hundred “regional, advisory, and small-scale technical assistance projects in judicial and legal reform with a total value estimated at USD 420 million.”13
In the mid-2000s, the ADB sought to measure the success of these projects. The results were mixed.14 This may explain why the ADB apparently deprioritized the LPR program, shifting resources elsewhere.15 But the ADB has not given up on judicial reform or the LPR program entirely. The projects in Mongolia and Afghanistan mentioned above are evidence of this fact. Further support comes from the ADB’s 2030 strategy, which acknowledges that:
Thus, given ADB’s past and ongoing investment in rule of law reform, the LPR program retains the potential to serve as a vehicle for building prosecutorial and judicial capacity among ADB’s member states. While building the capacity to prosecute cases involving core international crimes will no doubt face both internal and external challenges—challenges that are discussed in Part III of this comment—it nonetheless is useful to identify a mechanism that would allow the ADB to perform his work. That mechanism is the LPR program.
II. Implementation
The ADB’s ongoing judicial reform work in the Pacific acts as a useful model for how the ADB would implement a project aimed at building national capacity to prosecute Article 5 Crimes. In 2020, the ADB, through its LPR program, began providing technical assistance to its member states in the Pacific. This project has two goals:
“address gender inequality […] by strengthening the capacity of judicial systems to respond more effectively to violence against women and girls,” and
“increase knowledge sharing on gender-based violence and access to justice issues for women and girls.”17
To accomplish the first goal, the ADB will conduct an assessment of existing judicial capacity to address these issues, publish a report detailing the findings of the assessment, and then “develop and deliver customized capacity building programs for judges, magistrates, and prosecutors.”18 These programs will review the jurisprudence on crimes involving gender-based violence, including international conventions, legal principles, and legal standards.19 Further, the ADB will develop “bench books, handbooks, protocols, and/or guidelines on handling [violence against women and girls] cases.”20 To accomplish the second goal—increasing regional knowledge on gender-based violence and related legal issues—the ADB will “convene regional knowledge sharing events” on these topics and produce publications about gender-based violence cases and justice issues.21 The ADB is prepared to dedicate close to $1.2 million to carry out this work.22
In many respects, a project aimed at building judicial capacity to prosecute Article 5 Crimes would look identical to this work. The ADB would identify a portion of its member states that it believes would benefit from this work, or perhaps even a single state, then engage in the following:
assess existing judicial capacity,
publish its findings,
create training programs, handbooks, and guidelines based on international conventions for prosecuting Article 5 Crimes, and
convene regional events aimed at knowledge sharing on the prosecution of core international crimes. Further, this proposed work would be monitored and evaluated on a similar basis to the above-described projects.
For its work in the Pacific addressing gender-based violence, the ADB has published a monitoring and evaluation framework. Performance for the program will be based on outcomes and outputs, each with corresponding performance indicators, data reporting mechanisms, and assumptions.23 For example, one output identified is “[s]trengthened capacity of judicial systems in responding to [gender-based violence] cases.”24 As a performance indicator, the ADB expects that “[b]y 2024, at least 10 training programs [will be] delivered to judges, magistrates, and/or prosecutors.”25 The data that the ADB will use to monitor this work includes surveys, studies, and reports published by the ADB and its implementing partners.26 The ADB assumes that this work will face “cultural skepticism” and a “lack of support” from implementing partners.27
Again, if we replace the legal issue of gender-based crimes with Article 5 Crimes, we can envision a nearly identical evaluation and monitoring framework—one that seeks to provide training, assess the impact of the training, and operate under realistic assumptions of skepticism and a lack of support from implementing partners. Thus, using the ADB’s project on judicial capacity and gender-based crimes, we have a strong existing model to create a similar program aimed at building judicial capacity to prosecute Article 5 Crimes. Of course, such a program would face many obstacles.
III. Political Considerations
A. External Relationships Between the ADB and Japan, the United States, and China
This comment cannot address every political consideration for the program proposed above, but it will cover three important relationships that are likely to affect the ADB’s policy in this area. These relationships are those between the ADB and the United States, Japan, and China. Over the course of the ADB’s history, the United States and Japan have wielded the greatest influence over the bank’s policy.28 They share the two largest and equal voting positions in the bank29 and were both founding members. Between the two, scholars find that Japan has historically had more influence given its prominence in the region and its financial and political contributions.30 While China was not a founding member of the bank, it has gained influence over the bank in the last two decades and holds the third largest voting power in the ADB.31 It also has a growing regional influence and has founded a competing development bank, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB).
Scholars have found that Japan has used its position within the ADB to advance its own policy agenda, thus its perspective on a judicial reform program must be considered. That said, it would likely not be a political obstacle. Not only is Japan a States Party to the Rome Statute, but it is also the greatest contributor to the ICC’s budget.32 Since its ratification of the Rome Statute in 2007, Japan has expressed consistent support of the court and has enjoyed close diplomatic ties to the court.33 Evidence of this comes as recently as March of 2022 when Japan elected to refer the situation in Ukraine to the ICC.34 The ICC has likewise expressed its gratitude for this support,35 and the ICC’s president has expressed interest in setting up a regional office in Japan to raise the court’s awareness in Asia.36 Given Japan’s public support for the Court and its embrace for its guiding principles, it seems that Japan would be supportive of efforts to build national capacity to prosecute Article 5 Crimes. One mitigating factor would be whether Japan, with an eye toward its relationship with China, would be sensitive to China’s perspective on such a program. While this comment cannot capture the full complexity of China and Japanese relations, it will address China’s possible perspective on this matter later in this Part.
Like Japan, scholars have found that the United States has used its position within the ADB to pursue its own policy. Unlike Japan, it is not a States Party to the ICC, has voiced opposition to the Court, and has even invoked sanctions against its Chief Prosecutor.37 While the United States has never fully supported the ICC, it seems that as a matter of principle, the United States supports the prosecution of international crimes abroad, so long as those prosecutions do not involve U.S. nationals.38
Rather, it seems that there are reasons why the United States may favor these efforts. First, public support for judicial institution-building abroad would be an easy public relations piece for international and domestic audiences. Second, and if we accept the assumption that prosecuting core international crimes would have a stabilizing effect on conflict-affected or conflict-prone states (see discussion infra, then the United States may have an interest in building national prosecutorial capacity. The United States has increasingly sought to counter China’s influence in the Asia-Pacific.39 Building judicial capacity for core international crimes could be another mode by which the United States exercises that influence. This proceeds under the theory that the more stable these countries are and the more capable their judicial instructions are, the less susceptible they may be to Chinese influence. Further, strong regional judicial intuitions may deter China from taking aggressive actions during territorial disputes in the region.
Moreover, even under a U.S. administration that is hostile to the work of the ICC, building national prosecutorial capacity in Asia-Pacific states may be compelling in that it would in theory shift jurisdiction away from the ICC by way of complementarity. In a way, this would decrease the ICC’s relevance in a region where the ICC is actively seeking40 more influence.
As a final consideration, the United States has limited active military engagements in the Asia-Pacific region, and at this juncture, it is difficult to imagine that the United States would engage in active warfare in a state likely to be affected by this program. Thus, an increase in domestic capacity to prosecute core international crimes would not constitute a threat to U.S. nationals. Given these considerations, it seems that at worse, the United States would be neutral with respect to increasing regional capacity to prosecute Article 5 Crimes. At best, it may be supportive of these efforts.
Of the three, China would likely be the most hostile to ADB projects meant to build regional capacity to prosecute core international crimes, but even that hostility may be limited. Like the United States, China is not a States Party to the ICC. In part, its objection to joining as a States Party involves issues related to sovereign integrity and the belief that the ICC should not have jurisdiction over a state’s internal affairs.41 China’s objection would also stem from its disagreement with the Rome Statute’s definitions of crimes under Article 5.42 To this end, were the ADB to move forward with this project, China would likely try to influence how the program defines the international crimes in question.
That said, given China’s disposition toward the ICC and the belief in sovereign integrity, it may prefer to see states within the Asia-Pacific region develop their own capacity to prosecute these crimes nationally. As mentioned above, this would in theory limit the ICC’s jurisdiction in the region through complementarity and thus lower the odds of perceived ICC encroachment into regional sovereign states. On the other hand, China may oppose this work to the extent that it affects parts of the region where it has territorial disputes, as China would be opposed to having its actions in those areas potentially subject to proceedings by the ICC or another judicial body. In any case, if the ADB elected to pursue this program, it is hard to imagine it would do so in politically sensitive areas.
But even if China opposed this work, the ADB is not helpless. China is the second largest receiver of ADB loans.43 In response to Chinese opposition, the ADB could either limit the number of loans it provides to China or increase the interest rates on those loans. Further, there is precedent for the ADB taking this action, as the ADB has already raised interest rates on higher-income countries, in part as a means of reducing financial aid to China.44
Another complicating aspect of this relationship is the AIIB, which was founded by and is led by China. Increasingly the AIIB has acted as a competitive force to the ADB.45 While the two have co-financed several projects, the AIIB is growing in regional influence as a financier for developing states. Given that the ADB has recognized its waning financial influence in the region,46 it may be hesitant to take any action that would jeopardize its work with the AIIB and its relevance in the region.
While this analysis is necessarily circumscribed, and these three relationships do not constitute the full political picture, they suggest that the ADB’s most influential member states may not provide a significant obstacle to the ADB carrying out this work. Rather, the most significant obstacle would likely come from within the organization.
B. Internal Political Challenges and Institutional Challenges
The prosecution of Article 5 Crimes is a controversial topic in any region.47 Given the regional politics on these crimes, the ADB may find that wading into those controversial waters would be an unjustifiable risk, especially given fears of waning regional relevance. Further, the organization has shown ambivalence to judicial reform generally—this ambivalence may in part explain why the ADB’s LPR program has apparently been deprioritized over the last two decades.48 In addition, internal stakeholders may struggle to explain how the prosecution of core international crimes would facilitate economic development. Doing so would necessarily rest on two assumptions:
prosecuting these crimes has a significant deterrence effect—one that would lead armed groups to avoid conflict out of fear of prosecution for those crimes and thus lower the incidence of conflict generally; and
conflict has negative economic outcomes.
While the question of deterrence is the subject of much debate49 and beyond the scope of this comment, it nonetheless must be accepted that the threat of prosecution is more credible when there is institutional capacity than when there is not.
Regarding conflict and its effect on the economy, the academic consensus accepts that as a general matter, conflict does have negative economic effects.50 Further, research has shown that conflict in one nation has negative spill-over effects for neighboring countries.51 The ADB seems to accept this scholarship. In 2021, the ADB published a report on its goals to address fragile and conflict-affected situations.52 As part of this work, the ADB has a stated goal to “build resilience, address the underlying causes of fragility and conflict, and promote reconciliation and reconstruction.”53 By developing a program aimed at conflict-affected states, the ADB has shown that it accepts the proposition that conflict harms economic growth. If internal stakeholders can convince ADB’s leadership that the prosecution of core international crimes would likewise contribute to the ADB’s economic mission, then there would be a valid theoretical basis for justifying the program advocated by this comment.
Further, this would not be the first time that the ADB has pursued tangentially related programs in support of its mission. Take the above-described example of the ADB’s efforts on promoting gender equality and reducing gender-based violence. These efforts seek goals that are not per se economic but do have indirect economic effects—research shows that gender equality has a positive impact on economic growth.54 Internal stakeholders could use this work as justification for taking other tangential paths toward economic growth and stability, such as providing member states with a channel for seeking justice after conflicts and deterring future actors from engaging in further conflict.
Internal stakeholders could also look to ADB’s published 2030 outlook report—the ADB has conceded that to stay relevant as its member states develop, it must increasingly act as a source of knowledge, rather than just a source of financing.55 Helping its member states understand and implement best practices across numerous governance topics, including international conventions on prosecuting Article 5 Crimes, could fit beneath that goal.
Conclusion
The ADB has had a long history in the Asia-Pacific region and has played an influential role in the region’s development. Together with its broad reach among its member states, this gives the ADB a strong foundation to implement a judicial reform program. Further, the ADB has already demonstrated a willingness to engage in judicial reform on several legal topics through its LPR program. Its work in these areas, particularly its work in the Pacific to facilitate judicial reform aimed at crimes of gender-based violence, serves as a useful framework for pursuing judicial reform aimed at building national capacity to prosecute core international crimes. In consideration of the ADB’s three most important state relationships—those between the ADB and Japan, the United States, and China—there is reason to think that there may be minimal opposition to this judicial reform. The greatest opponent may come in the form of institutional apathy at the ADB to pursue this program. Internal stakeholders would need to convince ADB leadership that there is a justification for this work that fits within ADB’s mission of economic prosperity. Given that the ADB has demonstrated a willingness to engage in judicial reform programs aimed at non-economic legal issues and the apparent lack of external opposition from the ADB’s most important stakeholders, the ADB is well-positioned to enable domestic prosecution of Article 5 Crimes. This program would contribute to the principle of complementarity and could serve as an instructive model for engaging with other multilateral development banks.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
See Bruce Broomhall, Towards the Development of an Effective System of Universal Jurisdiction for Crimes Under International Law, 35 New Eng. L. Rev. 399, 410–18 (2001), available online. ↩
Examples include the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, and the African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights. ↩
Examples include the African Development Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. ↩
See generally Nihal Kappagoda, The Multilateral Development Banks Vol. II: The Asian Development Bank (1995), paywall. ↩
Who We Are, ADB, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
The nineteen states that are both members of the Asian Development Bank and signatories to the Rome Statute are Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Georgia, Japan, Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Nauru, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Samoa, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste, and Vanuatu. ↩
Asian Development Bank, supra note 5. ↩
See generally Our Work in Law and Policy Reform, ADB, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
See Livingston Armytage, Judicial Reform in Asia Case Study of ADB’s Experience: 1990–2007, 3 HJRL 70, 86 (Jan. 2011), available online, doi. ↩
Asian Development Bank, Mongolia: Strengthening the Capacity of Judicial Training (Nov. 2015), available online. ↩
Id. at 1. ↩
Press Release, Asian Development Bank, Judges and Prosecutors in Afghanistan Receive Expert Legal Training, Focused on Rights of Women, from ADB (Dec. 19, 2018), available online. ↩
Armytage, supra note 9, at 94. ↩
See id. at 94–95. ↩
See id. at 100. ↩
Asian Development Bank, Strategy 2030: Achieving a Prosperous, Inclusive, Resilient, and Sustainable Asia and the Pacific 8 (Jul. 2018) [hereinafter Strategy 2030], available online, doi. ↩
Asian Development Bank, Promotion of Gender-Responsive Judicial Systems, 1 (Dec. 2020), available online. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 6–7. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 6. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
See, e.g., Christopher Kilby, Donor Influence in Multilateral Development Banks: The Case of the Asian Development Bank, 1 Rev. Int’l Org. 173, 192–94 (2006), paywall, earlier version, doi. ↩
Asian Development Bank, 2020 Annual Report 75 (Appendix 5: Members, Capital Stock, and Voting Power) (Apr. 25, 2021) [hereinafter 2020 Annual Report], available online, doi. ↩
See, e.g., Daniel Yew Mao Lim & James Raymond Vreeland, Regional Organizations and International Politics: Japanese Influence over the Asian Development Bank and the U.N. Security Council, 65 World Pol. 34, 44–45 (Jan. 2013), available online, doi. ↩
2020 Annual Report, supra note 29, at 75. ↩
Press Release, ICC, ICC President Visits Japan, Meets with Senior Officials and Concludes Cooperation Agreement with UNAFEI (Oct. 24, 2022) [hereinafter ICC President Visits Japan], available online. ↩
See, e.g., Yasumasa Nagamine, Ambassador of Japan to the Netherlands, Statement at the Eleventh Session of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Nov. 15, 2012), available online. ↩
Press Release, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, Referral of the Situation in Ukraine to the International Criminal Court (Mar. 9, 2022), available online. ↩
See, e.g., ICC President Visits Japan, supra note 32. ↩
Junko Horiuchi, Int’l Criminal Court Head “Keen” to Set Up 1st Regional Office in Japan, Kyodo News, Oct. 21, 2022, available online. ↩
Presidential Executive Order 13928: Blocking Property of Certain Persons Associated with the International Criminal Court, 85 FR 115 (Jun. 11, 2020), available online, archived. ↩
See, e.g., id.; Harry M. Rhea, The United States and International Criminal Tribunals: An Historical Analysis, 16 ILSA J. Int’l & Comp. L. 19 (2009), available online. ↩
See, e.g., Munir Majid, LSE, Southeast Asia Between China and the United States (Nov. 2012), available online. ↩
See Horiuchi, supra note 36.
(The ICC’s desire to install a regional office in Japan is driven by a desire to have more relevance in the Asia-Pacific region). ↩
See, e.g., Dan Zhu, China, the International Criminal Court, and Global Governance, 73 AJIA 585, 597 (2019), paywall, archived, doi. ↩
See, e.g., Bing Bing Jia, China and the International Criminal Court: The Current Situation, 10 SYBIL 87, 89–90 (2006), available online. ↩
Asian Development Bank, Financial Report 2021 (Mar. 2022), available online. ↩
See Press Release, Asian Development Bank, ADB Introduces New Loan Pricing for Higher Income Countries (Nov. 19, 2019), available online; see also Stanley White, U.S. to Pitch for Higher Lending Rates at ADB Meet as Region Eyes China, Reuters, May 4, 2018, available online. ↩
See, e.g., Viktor Jakupec & Max Kelly, The Relevance of Asian Development Bank: Existing in the Shadow of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, 5 JRSEI 31, 34–36 (Sep. 2015), available online. ↩
Strategy 2030, supra note 16, at 24.
(“Given the rapid changes in Asia and the Pacific and the fact that most [Developing Member Countries] have attained middle-income status, ADB’s continued relevance will increasingly depend on its role as a knowledge institution.”). ↩
This is due to fundamental differences among states as to what should define core international crimes, the proper jurisdiction over these crimes, and how the prosecution of these crimes contributes to a state’s understanding of justice. ↩
See Armytage, supra note 9, at 71, 101–03. ↩
See generally Martin Mennecke, Punishing Genocidaires: A Deterrent Effect or Not?, 8 Hum. Rts. Rev. 319 (Jul. 2007), paywall, doi. ↩
See, e.g., Olaf J. de Groot, The Spillover Effects of Conflict on Economic Growth in Neighbouring Countries in Africa, 21 DPE 1, 2–2 (Apr. 2010), available online, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Asian Development Bank, Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situations and Small Island Developing States Approach (Jun. 2021), available online, doi. ↩
Id. at 8. ↩
See, e.g., Marie-Louise Litmeyer, Leah Bender, Sina Happel, Alexa Peusch, Nicola Spory & Stefan Hennemann, The Effects of Gender Equality on Economic Development in Europe, 76 Erdkunde 21, 29–32 (Jan. 2022), available online, doi. ↩
Strategy 2030, supra note 16, at 24. ↩
I. Introduction
The principle of universal jurisdiction provides for a state’s jurisdiction over crimes against international law even when the crime did not occur on that state’s territory, and neither the victim nor perpetrator is a national of that state (thus ruling out the exercise of jurisdiction through the principles of nationality, passive personality, and territoriality).1 This, thus, allows national courts in third countries to address international crimes occurring abroad to hold perpetrators criminally liable and to prevent impunity.2 Therefore, this furthers the idea that the world must be united against such egregious crimes and emphasizes the argument that those crimes are so shocking and appalling that any state should be able to condemn them despite not having any links to the state where the acts occurred. The exercise of universal jurisdiction has occurred, for example, in the case of Hissène Habré in Senegal, in The Gambia as against Myanmar regarding the genocide of the Rohingyas, and, recently, Germany and France have exercised universal jurisdiction to arrest Syrian officials found in their territories.3
The principle of complementarity aims at granting jurisdiction to a subsidiary body when the main body fails to exercise its primacy jurisdiction.4 In the case of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), this would mean interfering only when the national jurisdiction in the situation country was unwilling or unable to prosecute pursuant to Article 17 of the Rome Statute.5 One of the main hurdles that the ICC has had to face since its creation in 2002 is that, with such an immense role to prosecute crimes within its jurisdiction, the case load piles up in a way in which the ICC struggles to keep up with international demand to end impunity. This comment will seek to argue that the principle of complementarity in the context of universal jurisdiction will enable the ICC to face this hurdle. Firstly, it will open by describing some of the challenges of universal jurisdiction that will be raised throughout the comment. Secondly, it will seek to introduce the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia’s (ICTY) Rules of the Road, how they were implemented, and their relevance in the context of universal jurisdiction. Thirdly, it will provide an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the Rules of the Road, in the context of the ICC. Finally, it will determine whether any other procedures used by the ICTY may be used by the ICC, namely, the use of Rule 11 bis, transfer of Category 2 cases and the use of liaison prosecutors. The comment will seek to conclude that the ICC can make itself a more effective partner to states wishing to exercise universal jurisdiction by following some of the procedures used by the ICTY.
II. The Challenges of Universal Jurisdiction
Before analyzing how the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) can make itself a more effective partner in states’ exercise of universal jurisdiction, it is first important to get an insight into the challenges of universal jurisdiction. This will, in turn, enable an understanding of how the OTP can surmount those challenges. According to Moghadam, there are three issues with universal jurisdiction. The first issue is jurisdictional imperialism, which focuses on the idea that universal jurisdiction is usually exercised by former colonial powers against perpetrators of former colonies, or, in other words, a Global North versus Global South type of situation.6 The second issue is politicization, and, particularly, the perception that universal jurisdiction infringes upon state sovereignty.7 Politics plays a prominent role in the exercise of universal jurisdiction, for example, in the context of high-ranking officials targeted by universal jurisdiction cases, who can deter their own prosecution by exerting powerful political pressure, which leads to states refusing to detain, extradite or prosecute suspects for fear of political reprisals.8 The third challenge is that of implementation. Universal jurisdiction is a somewhat novel concept for several states, and this lack of familiarity creates an obstacle in its exercise.9 Judges are often reluctant to exercise it because of the political implications of trying a crime without a traditional nexus between the forum and the accused.10 Many states simply lack the courage to try high-ranking officials from powerful nations.11 Not every member state has universal jurisdiction codified in its legislation. In the case of Africa, the African Union (AU) has put in place an AU Model Law of Universal Jurisdiction which, while accepted by African States, is not used by them.
One of the goals of the ICC, and indeed of the world, is to end impunity, which universal jurisdiction provides a steppingstone in achieving. Promoting its exercise could, hopefully, lead to more international criminals being brought to justice.
III. ICTY Rules of the Road
In the aftermath of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the OTP agreed to operate a Rules of the Road12 scheme to address refugees and returning displaced persons’ fears about arbitrary arrests on suspicion of war crimes.13 Signed in 1996, the Rules of the Road provision states that:
In other words, the scheme provided that local prosecutors were obliged to submit case files to the Hague for review.15 The main aim of this was to ensure that no person could be arrested on suspicion of war crimes unless the Tribunal’s prosecution had first received and assessed a case file to contain credible charges.16 This was brought about by a myriad of concerns about the Bosnian judicial system, including, but not exhaustively:
Therefore, according to the provision, local authorities may only arrest and detain persons if two of the following circumstances are met: (1) the individual has already been indicted by the Tribunal for serious violations of international humanitarian law, or (2) the indictment has already been reviewed by the Tribunal and found to be consistent with international legal standards.18
Under the Rules of the Road, the OTP’s role is to determine whether there is credible and reliable evidence available on two matters, namely, whether a serious violation of international humanitarian law within the Tribunal’s jurisdiction has been committed, and whether the alleged person is responsible for this violation. After that, the OTP will inform whether there is sufficient evidence under international legal standards to show reasonable grounds for believing the suspect committed the crime.
A. Rules of the Road: Success or Failure?
One of the recurring issues that the ICC faces until this day is its lack of financial resources. In the context of Bosnia and the exercise of the Rules of the Road, the OTP instead wanted to focus its efforts on indictments within its jurisdiction rather than creating a monitoring and authorization procedure for the parties’ prosecutorial exercises.19 Furthermore, another challenge of the Rules of the Road is that it required three parties (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Croatia) to provide the OTP with an estimate of the number of cases expected to be submitted for review and a projected timeline for when they will be submitted, yet only Bosnia complied with this requirement.20 Thirdly, a major issue encountered was the OTP’s delay to the parties who submitted the review, which resulted in increased animosity toward the Tribunal by the Bosnian Government.21 The ICTY was slow in reviewing cases partly because of staff limitations and competing priorities.22 Many of the files were in local languages and were organized in a way alien to the OTP.23 More than 2300 of almost 6000 cases sent to the ICTY were never reviewed and were lost, which overall stalled the domestic jurisdiction’s momentum to prosecute.24 Many of the files were also incomplete in part because of the ongoing war, but also because the Tribunal was still in its infancy and thus unable to provide clear guidance on file preparation.25 Lack of clarity regarding the legal status of the Rules of the Road and failure to share the rules to entity officials led to confusion among domestic authorities.26 Due to this, the Tribunal was ill-prepared and even became reluctant to shoulder the burden of Rules of the Road, which were later given a low priority within the OTP’s administrative structure.27 Despite its many challenges, the Rules of the Road enabled the OTP staff to review 1419 files involving 4985 suspects between 1996 to 2004 and approved 848 persons. Of those, 54 had reached trial stage in domestic courts by January 2005.28
The Rules of the Road framework thus demonstrates a way in which the ICC may make itself an effective partner by confirming that domestic jurisdictions’ claims meet the international legal standards.
B. The Rules of the Road in the Context of Universal Jurisdiction
In the case of universal jurisdiction, the context is different since, compared to the Rules of the Road framework, the situation country does not exercise jurisdiction, but instead, a third country does. A way in which the Rules of the Road may be used would be to provide a similar framework whereby the third country may send the file to the ICC for review. Since the ICTY was very reluctant to exercise this power due to lack of resources and different priorities, perhaps this could be optional. Having the Rules of the Road framework as an option rather than an obligation will help both the ICC and the third country. The ICC would have less work than the ICTY did since not every country wishing to exercise universal jurisdiction would need to do it. On the other hand, any third country unsure about whether they may exercise universal jurisdiction may get preliminary approval by the ICC who could confirm, as the ICTY did in the Rules of the Road, that the evidence meets international standards. This would surmount the third challenge mentioned by Moghadam above about states lacking familiarity to prosecute. In this case, the ICC would first need to provide clear guidelines on the structure of the file and the threshold that must be met to conform to legal standards.
Hoover suggested creating an ICC Review Board, which may mirror the framework of the Rules of the Road.29 This would consist of having a body within the ICC to provide a pre-trial check of a state party’s claim to exercise universal jurisdiction. According to Article 15 of the Rome Statute,30 the Pre-Trial Chamber must authorize and conclude that there is reasonable basis for the OTP to commence an investigation in proprio motu cases. The ICC Review Board could follow a similar structure whereby the state could present evidence to the Board, who will then determine whether the state’s claim is valid and well-founded.31 The Board must first, however, ensure that there are clear guidelines on file preparation, to avoid the issues faced by the Rules of the Road. This would provide a solution to the challenge mentioned above that states lack the courage to prosecute certain nations, since, in this case, they would ask the ICC for confirmation on whether their case has merits, which will then enable them to proceed with their investigation and trials. Another advantage is that it would prevent the delays experienced by the ICTY since a whole new unit would be tasked with the review. It could also enable the ICC’s assistance in ensuring that the exercising states have effective national legislations in place, not only that define the relevant crimes, but also provide courts with due process rights, as well as unbiased and prompt trials.32 In turn, this would ensure that the state properly exercises universal jurisdiction by providing guidance and confirmation that the claim is valid, once again surmounting Moghadam’s third challenge. Furthermore, the Review Board could also determine whether the state has the financial and logistical means to prosecute without sacrificing the interests of justice or protection of the perpetrator in custody or that of the witnesses.33
On the other hand, perhaps it might be unrealistic to task the court with the creation of a new body. Rather, an alternative could be to have the exercising state seek Advisory Opinions, as is done in the International Court of Justice, whereby the Court could then issue a pre-trial check. This would then reach the same aim as the ICC Review Board by providing guidance to states and confirming the validity of their claim, which would potentially provide courage to so-called weaker states who lack the political will to prosecute powerful states to exercise universal jurisdiction.34 On the other hand, the issue of the ICC issuing Advisory Opinions has been a recurring one. In the situation in the DRC,35 the Court stated that:
In Prosecutor v. Kani, the Appeals Chamber repeated that:
It also signaled that, for rendering an advisory opinion, the procedure needs to be enacted by the Assembly of States Parties (ASP).37 It could be inferred that rather than amending the Rome Statute, it could be possible to introduce new procedures in the ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence and request advisory opinions from the Court.38 The Appeals Chamber in Prosecutor v. Kani mentioned that the Court “has the power to pronounce on general matters of interpretation and application related to the Statute.”39 This thus shows that the ICC has the implied power to render advisory opinions but lacks the procedure for this competence to exist.40
This would also respond to the AU’s concerns that universal jurisdiction may interfere with state sovereignty.41 To prevent such infringement, the AU Assembly suggested the establishment of an:
They made no mention of the ICC, but this could be used by the ICC since the body would review whether claims of universal jurisdictions are valid or whether they interfere with state sovereignty, thus circumventing Moghadam’s second challenge to universal jurisdiction on politicization. Preventing the abuse of universal jurisdiction could also surmount Moghadam’s first challenge on jurisdictional imperialism since in this case, the claims would be confirmed to be well-founded, thus not leaving room for a Global North versus Global South criticism.
IV. ICTY Procedures: Partnership with National Jurisdictions
Another way in which the ICC may make itself a more effective partner in states’ exercise of universal jurisdiction would be to, once again, follow the OTP’s initiatives in the ICTY. Security Council Resolution 1503 prescribes that the ICTY transfers cases involving those who do not bear the greatest level of responsibility for crimes within the Tribunals jurisdiction to competent national jurisdictions and to strengthen the capacity of such jurisdiction.43 The OTP used transition teams to ensure as many persons as possible would be brought to justice by transferring whole cases for prosecution locally.44 The team within the OTP was tasked with handing over to national courts cases involving intermediate and lower ranked accused.45 In an effort to prosecute war crimes at the domestic level, the OTP fostered partnerships with prosecutors and courts through the several initiatives such as: Rule 11 bis cases (which consisted of assisting regional prosecutors with cases that the ICTY has transferred to them), Category 2 cases (which consisted of helping domestic prosecutors to run their own cases based on investigative material transferred by the OTP), responding to requests for assistance and otherwise sharing resources with national prosecutors, facilitating cooperation between the ICTY and domestic prosecutors by way of the liaison prosecutors program, and training and educating prosecutors and young professionals who are interested in war crimes litigation throughout the former Yugoslavia and promoting regional cooperation (cooperation between prosecutors of the region who are dealing with cases transferred by the OTP).46
To ensure that people suspected of war crimes are brought to justice, the OTP would assist national bodies in the region by passing on evidence that may be of use in local investigations and by transferring whole cases for prosecution locally. A transition team within the OTP would hand over to national courts such cases involving intermediate and lower-ranking accused. The Rules of the Road paved the way for Rule 11 bis whose main aim was to lift some of the burden of the ICTY due to the Tribunal’s limited time and need to complete more cases.47 Rule 11 bis focused on referrals, which allowed the Tribunal to transfer jurisdiction from the international to the national level/to the situation country. The body entrusted with such referrals within the ICTY was the referral bench, a quasi-chamber responsible for determining the suitability of an indictment for referral.48 Many members were American, such as the chief prosecutor, who was a former deputy U.S. attorney, and half of the prosecutors and judges, which enabled the chamber to be more legitimate and less politicized. Rule 11 bis reversed the mechanism of complementarity by deciding whether the indictment should be sent back to national courts rather than internationally.49 A particularly interesting aspect of Rule 11 bis is subsection (A)(iii) which states that the bench may refer the indictment to the authorities of the state “having jurisdiction and being willing and adequately prepared to accept such a case.” This provision does not mention any type of jurisdiction therefore leaving open the possibility of referrals to states which have no link to the crime or the accused, thus enabling the exercise of universal jurisdiction. In other words, the trial may occur in any state, if it is able and willing to prosecute.50 An advantage is that not only does it lift the ICC’s burden by handing cases to domestic courts, but it also enhances national capacity to prosecute the most international crimes, increasing their familiarity with universal jurisdiction, and surmounting the third challenge of implementation, as mentioned above. This reflects Article 9 of the ICTY Statute which states that the Tribunal is not intended to replace national courts but rather to coexist with them by having concurrent jurisdiction. In the context of the ICC, referrals under the Rule 11 bis framework may be problematic if it has already been determined that the situation country cannot or will not prosecute.51 However, in these cases, the dossier could be sent to the situation country along with assistance.52
Category 2 case files were investigations opened by the OTP, but which, due to prioritization of some cases over others, were discontinued and left incomplete.53 The OTP thereafter transferred those case files to national prosecutors. In total, seventeen files with investigative material on forty-three suspects were transferred and led to regional prosecutors being responsible for bringing the investigations to a conclusion based on the evidence received from the OTP.54 This could be useful for universal jurisdiction purposes, where there could be an exchange of information between the OTP and the exercising state. This would mirror Article 93(10) of the Rome Statute55 which provides that the Court may cooperate with and provide assistance to a State Party conducting an investigation which includes the transmission of statements, documents or other types of evidence, and the questioning of any person detained by order of the Court. Perhaps this would encourage states to exercise universal jurisdiction since they would have some assistance in the process. On the other hand, realistically, this may be an issue. Sharing evidence with an exercising country may be risky for the ICC, particularly in countries where the evidence may be compromised or may fall in the hands of the wrong person.56 In this case, the second challenge of politicization of proceedings would be raised.
Another way in which the ICC could mirror the ICTY is to have liaison prosecutors.57 In June 2009, three prosecutors from the region (one from Bosnia and Herzegovina, one from Croatia, and one from Serbia) worked as liaison prosecutors within the OTP. They would interact with members of the OTP’s Transition Team which enables them to consult with them on related cases and general issues.58 They would get training including how to search, review and analyze databases to access confidential ICTY materials so that they can utilize all the ICTY’s resources and would also act as a point of contact for other national prosecutors throughout the region.59 The OTP would also regularly meet with government officials and members of the judiciary to discuss practical issues faced by colleagues in the former Yugoslavia and provide guidance.60 This could be helpful in the context of universal jurisdiction. Perhaps a small team of national prosecutors of the exercising state could act as liaison prosecutors and spend some time in the Hague with the OTP where they could be provided with training. Such training would then enable the national prosecutors to blend their knowledge of national law with international law, which may lead to greater legitimacy in the proceedings as well as greater conformity with international standards. According to Brammertz, for domestic prosecutions to be successful, States must have a criminal justice system with the capacity to deal with cases the Tribunal cannot prosecute.61 One of the arguments raised by Senegal in the Habré case was that they did not have the capacity to deal with the case.62 Perhaps this would be less of an issue by having those partnerships. It would also benefit the ICC since it would conserve the OTP’s financial resources. The OTP could act as an advisor to domestic jurisdictions and could expand efforts to serve as a hub enabling different domestic actors to communicate with criminal justice system officials from other jurisdictions and share experiences of best practices.
Such a framework would thus be a continuation of that of the Rules of the Road, whereby a country seeking to exercise universal jurisdiction could collaborate with the ICC in trying the relevant State. Following the Rules of the Road framework, the exercising state could submit case files to the Hague, which would then assess it to see whether there are any credible charges. Once this is done, the OTP could then assist national bodies by providing information, as well as training the national authorities to assist in their investigations. This would enable the OTP to ease its case load and to hand off its cases because national authorities would then have guidance on how they could exercise universal jurisdiction and having this guidance and framework will then incite more states to do the same. This would surmount many of the challenges faced by universal jurisdiction, particularly the three mentioned above: imperialism, politicization and implementation.
Alternatively, if the ICC finds itself unable to shoulder the burden of review, as was the case in the ICTY, perhaps hybrid expert groups could share the burden. In November 2008, the African Union and European Union, established a working group composed of outside experts to clarify both organizations’ “respective understandings of the principle of universal jurisdiction” by providing a description of its application in Africa and Europe, which led to a 45-page report.63 This could be used when dealing with universal jurisdiction cases by combining expert groups to share the investigative burden and the gathering of evidence,64 surmounting the third challenge.
V. Conclusion
Overall, only a few states so far have exercised universal jurisdiction. Therefore, it might be unrealistic to argue that it will hold a substantial share of the perpetrators of international crimes accountable. However, the ICC can make itself a more effective partner by encouraging such use of universal jurisdiction. It could do that by following some of the procedures of the ICTY. Following the Rules of the Road framework will enable the ICC to prosecute high-ranked officials, while leaving lower-level officials to domestic courts. This would surmount Moghadam’s second challenge of politicization since the higher-ranked official would be handled by the ICC, thus, any political threats towards the state would be futile. Since the domestic jurisdictions would also be able to submit their files for review to the ICC, they would also be able to circumvent Moghadam’s third challenge of implementation since they would get confirmation that their claim is valid. Finally, the ICC could follow the ICTY’s procedures on partnering with national jurisdictions by providing training and assistance to liaison prosecutors or by sharing evidence. Giving states this additional guidance may also circumvent Moghadam’s first challenge of imperialism since the exercise of universal jurisdiction would be equal for both the Global North and South countries. This will overall give more confidence to those states to exercise jurisdiction even against others considered to be more powerful.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Term: Universal Jurisdiction, ECCHR, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Id. ↩
Andrew Johnson, How Universal is Universal Jurisdiction?, Am. U. J. Gender & Soc. Pol’y & L., available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Xavier Philippe, The Principles of Universal Jurisdiction and Complementarity: How Do the Two Principles Intermesh?, 88 Int’l Rev. Red Cross 375, 380 (Jun. 2006), available online. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 17, available online. ↩
Tanaz Moghadam, Revitalizing Universal Jurisdiction: Lessons from Hybrid Tribunals Applied to the Case of Hissène Habré, 39 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 471, 484–90 (2008), paywall. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Fatou Bensouda, Private Conversation with Author during International Law Weekend Conference in New York City (Oct. 22, 2022). ↩
Report of the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. S/1996/665, Third Annual Report of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, ¶¶ 80–82 (Aug. 16, 1996), available online.
(The Rules of the Road procedure enabled local prosecutors to submit case files to the Hague for review before arresting alleged perpetrators of war crimes). ↩
Working with the Region, ICTY, available online (last visited Aug. 29, 2023). ↩
Mark Steven Ellis, Bringing Justice to an Embattled Region: Creating and Implementing the “Rules of the Road” for Bosnia-Herzegovina, 17 Berkeley J. Int’l L. 1, 7 (Jul. 1999), available online. ↩
Working with the Region, supra note 13. ↩
Id. ↩
Laurel E. Fletcher & Harvey M. Weinstein, Justice, Accountability and Social Reconstruction: An Interview Study of Bosnian Judges and Prosecutors, 18 Berkeley J. Int’l L. 102, 110 (2000), available online. ↩
Ellis, supra note 14, at 7. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 9. ↩
Id. at 19. ↩
Yaël Ronen, The Impact of the ICTY on Atrocity-Related Prosecutions in the Courts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3 Penn St. J. L. Int’l Aff. 113, 141 (Apr. 2014), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Ellis, supra note 14, at 19. ↩
Ronen, supra note 22, at 18. ↩
Id. at 17. ↩
Id. ↩
Dalila V. Hoover, Universal Jurisdiction not so Universal: A Time to Delegate to the International Criminal Court, 52 Cornell L. Sch. Grad. Student Papers (Jun. 4, 2011), online, paywall. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 5, at Art. 15. ↩
Hoover, supra note 29, at 103. ↩
Id. at 104. ↩
Id. ↩
Bensouda, supra note 11. ↩
Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, ICC-01/04 OA4 OA5 OA6, Decision on Victim Participation in the appeal of the Office of Public Counsel for the Defence against Pre-Trial Chamber I’s Decision of 7 December 2007 and in the appeals of the Prosecutor and the Office of Public Counsel for the Defence against Pre-Trial Chamber I’s Decision of 24 December 2007, ¶ 30 (AC, Jun. 30, 2008), available online. ↩
The Prosecutor v. Mahamat Said Abdel Kani, ICC-01/14-01/21 OA5, Decision on the admissibility of the appeal, ¶ 23 (AC, Oct. 25, 2022) [hereinafter Prosecutor v. Kani], available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Giorgi Nakashidze, Towards Advisory Opinions of the International Criminal Court, EJIL Talk (Nov. 16, 2022), available online. ↩
Prosecutor v. Kani, supra note 36, ¶ 23. ↩
Nakashidze, supra note 38. ↩
Martin Mennecke, The African Union and Universal Jurisdiction, in The International Criminal Court and Africa 13 (Charles Chernor Jalloh & Ilias Bantekas eds., Oct. 5, 2017), available at paywall, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Serge Brammetz, The Legacy of the ICTY: Fair Trials and Cooperation with Local Courts, in Assessing the Legacy of the ICTY 27, 28 (Richard H. Steinberg ed., 2011), paywall. ↩
Working with the Region, supra note 13. ↩
Id. ↩
Brammetz, supra note 43. ↩
Olympia Bekou, Rule 11 bis: An Examination of the Process of Referrals to National Courts in ICTY Jurisprudence, 33 Fordham Int’l L.J. 723, 726 (2009), available online. ↩
Id. at 730–31. ↩
Id. at 731. ↩
Id. at 758. ↩
Richard H. Steinberg, Private Conversation with Author (Dec. 5, 2022). ↩
Id. ↩
Bekou, supra note 47, at 758. ↩
Id. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 5, at Art. 93(10). ↩
Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Unpublished Remarks to UCLA Law School Class Attended by Author (Nov. 16, 2022). ↩
Brammetz, supra note 43, at 31. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal): Summary of the Judgment, I.C.J. 4 (Jul. 20, 2012), available online. ↩
Mennecke, supra note 41, at 13. ↩
Id. ↩
I. Introduction
Under the principle of complementarity, the International Criminal Court (ICC or the Court) is intended to function solely as a court of last resort when courts of the national jurisdiction where crimes occurred are unable to genuinely investigate and prosecute these crimes. As part of their genuine efforts, national jurisdictions must also sufficiently address victims’ rights. However, under the current state of international criminal law, national jurisdictions tend to narrowly focus on criminal prosecutions while victims’ rights have taken a backseat.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can help alleviate the burden of nation states pursuing criminal prosecutions by focusing on the rights of victims. NGOs can do so by focusing their efforts on improving reparations and promoting victim participation in legal proceedings.
Firstly, NGOs improve reparations by incorporating initial victim input into reparations planning, consulting with victims throughout all stages of reparations development, and advocating for broader and more inclusive reparations.
Secondly, NGOs can promote victim participation by encouraging witnesses, advocating for victims who wish to share statements with the court, and serving as direct legal representation.
Of course, there are important considerations to bear in mind as NGOs take on these tasks. This includes managing victims’ expectations and being wary of political influence. Still, NGOs can strive for victims’ rights while being realistic about such risks and constraints.
II. Complementarity and Victims’ Rights
Under the principle of complementarity, the ICC is intended to function solely as a court of last resort when courts of the national jurisdiction where crimes occurred are unwilling or unable to genuinely investigate and prosecute these crimes.1 If a nation and its courts are able and willing to prosecute an individual for a crime, the ICC must defer to these national courts.2 However, the ICC may step in if it finds that the efforts of the national court are ingenuine.3 As such, it is important that national courts satisfy the ICC’s determinations of genuine efforts if they want to avoid intervention by the Court. Genuine efforts entail showing that the court is meeting “internationally recognized norms and standards.”4
Among such internationally recognized norms is the importance of allowing victims to participate in and receive reparations from criminal proceedings. The Rome Statute recognizes the right of victims to participate in proceedings not only as witnesses, but as individuals with a valid interest in the outcome.5 The Statute also explicitly recognizes a victim’s right to receive reparations.6 Indeed, the number of victim-centric provisions within the Rome Statute and ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence clearly suggests that the ICC considers victims’ rights to be an integral component of justice.7 As such, as nation states endeavor to implement the principle of complementarity, they must also endeavor to properly address victims’ rights and reparations within their justice systems.
Unfortunately, under the current state of international criminal law, national jurisdictions tend to narrowly focus on criminal prosecutions while the acknowledgment of victims has taken a backseat.8 Some jurisdictions perceive the recognition of victims as a distraction, while reparations plod forward at a snail’s pace.9 Giving a voice to victims who have “enormous needs and who have suffered unimaginable harms” has been an overwhelming challenge that no state has yet been able to fully redress.10 The lack of organization and resources to properly address and satisfy victims has made it clear that there is a strong need for an institution that will advocate for victims’ rights and reparations as nation states focus on prosecuting crimes.
III. Non-governmental Organizations
NGOs can help alleviate the burden of nation states seeking to implement complementarity by focusing on victims’ rights. NGO is a broad term used to describe a “non-profit, goal-oriented group not founded or controlled by a government.”11 NGOs can focus their efforts on victims’ rights to help nation states implement complementarity by seeking to improve reparations and promoting victim participation.
IV. Focus Efforts on Reparations
Firstly, NGOs can focus their efforts on reparations. Although the right to reparations for victims of international crimes is a well-established principle, it often goes unimplemented and its practical application is fraught with uncertainties.12 Such issues include determining the nature and amount of reparations and scaling reparations to mass amounts of victims.13 Courts have expressed that given the difficulty of implementing reparations, such an endeavor can run “counter to [their] principal objective of prosecuting those responsible for the crimes.”14 Even when reparations are ordered, they have been guided primarily by expediency and victims have felt unsatisfied by the way they are distributed.15 All in all, victims have expressed disappointment by their lack of tangible benefits from criminal tribunals.16
Still, reparations are essential in that they provide tangible measures to survivors that can improve their quality of life.17 They are also symbolic in that they are “as much about the restoration of dignity and the acknowledgement of the harm suffered, as it is about monetary compensation or restitution.”18 Evidently, the delivery of reparations is crucial. This is captured by the idea of reparative complementarity, which mandates that domestic systems create an effective remedy for victims seeking reparations.19 In lieu of the national courts, NGOs can focus their efforts on improving and delivering reparations to victims. This can be done by collecting victim input, consulting with victims throughout all stages of the reparations process and advocating for broader and more inclusive reparations.
A. Incorporating Initial Victim Input into Reparations Planning
Firstly, NGOs can collect and consider victim input at the initial stage of reparations planning to ensure that reparations are designed with a mindfulness of victims’ needs. Consulting with victims during the initial stage serves as an important source of information that is crucial to design an effective reparations program that responds to the kinds of violations suffered, their consequences, and the victims’ current needs and conditions.20 Initial victim consultation can help planners identify a need for more than just monetary reparations during the early stages of planning, such as psychological help for rape victims or memorials commemorating lives lost.21
Engaging in preliminary, victim-centric dialogue with survivors is also a way to honor the real and ongoing impacts to their lives. Victims who have just emerged from conflict may be too fixated on simply returning to their homes and accessing safety to think about reparations, let alone engage in complex discussions of reparations.22 In such situations, it would serve NGOs well to emphasize the victims’ current situations and showing empathy rather than ignorantly forging ahead. This type of victim-centric approach can encourage the later cooperation of these victims who can now trust that NGOs have their best interests in mind.
Ultimately, reparations are most effective when they:
B. Consulting with Victims Throughout All Stages of the Process
Secondly, NGOs can continue to consult with victims and involve them throughout all stages of the reparations process, including in the development and implementation of reparations awards.24 Involving victims with the reparations planning process involves not only the incorporation of victims’ initial input, but also demands continuous consultation to ensure that victims are satisfied with developing changes in the design of the reparations program. Victims deserve transparency throughout the whole reparations process so that their feedback can be incorporated into the ongoing development of reparations. Ultimately, the goal is to ensure that the final reparations program correctly addresses the victims’ initial concerns.25
Once victims approve, continuous consultation of victims can help provide valuable information for the successful implementation of reparations.26 Victims can provide important feedback about the “effectiveness of distribution and the quality of service provided by the agents in charge of reparations.”27 Additionally, involving victims with implementation provides them with information that they can then disseminate among their community to reach victims in more isolated areas.28
Ultimately, encouraging participation of victims through every stage of the reparation process recognizes victim agency and ensures that the priority is victims’ needs.29 There is also a mutually beneficial aspect where victim participation can:
C. Advocating for Broader and More Inclusive Reparations
Lastly, NGOs can improve reparations by seeking to increase the number of eligible victims by influencing the government in determining victim eligibility and by assisting claimants with the application process.
First, specialized NGOs can lobby to ensure that certain groups of victims are considered eligible and are not neglected in the administration of reparations. For example, a feminist NGO that specializes in the rights of women victims can pressure a national jurisdiction to ensure that its reparations are also addressing victimization suffered particularly by women.31 Even in the absence of specialized NGOs, general victims’ rights NGOs directly consult with victims and thus are well-situated to identify subgroups of victims who have experienced special forms of victimization, such as women or other minority groups.32 NGOs can bring these groups of victims to the attention of the government.
NGOs can also lobby to broaden reparations by advocating for the recognition of a wider constellation of eligible victims who are connected to crimes rather than just victims who have sought to interact with the court.33 For example, a court may determine that only victims who submit applications will be eligible for reparations rather than attempting to open the process to unidentified victims.34 In such cases, NGOs are better connected within victim communities and have a better chance of identifying such unidentified victims, who they can bring to the attention of the court.35 NGOs can advocate for a more collective entitlement to reparations that benefits a wider range of victims impacted by atrocities.
Secondly, NGOs can assist claimants in satisfying the often-difficult bureaucratic steps required to receive reparations.36 Victims are especially discouraged when they are illiterate or located in physically remote areas.37 NGOs can help these victims by spreading information among victims, providing advice to claimants, assisting them in filling out forms, and helping them gather and present documents.38
V. Promoting Victim Participation
Next, NGOs can advocate for victims’ rights by promoting victim participation in court proceedings. NGOs have historically advocated for the rights of victims to participate in legal proceedings.39 Since its establishment in 1993, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has transformed the ways in which victims participate in proceedings, voice their personal experiences, and obtain relief.40 Feminists have worked to advocate and support policy changes when crimes of sexual violence predominantly impacting women went uncharged.41 Several commissions have been established in Côte d’Ivoire with the purpose of incorporating victim participation and reparations.42 Still, there is potential for greater involvement of NGOs in supporting victims to participate in legal proceedings.43 As Ferstman claims, “greater involvement of NGOs to support victims to participate in the proceedings would be useful.”44 Participation that is respectful, knowledgeable, transparent, and achieved through effective forms of representation is crucial in allowing “victims to feel that they are valued and recognised as rights-holders under the law.”45 NGOs can promote victim participation in legal proceedings by encouraging victim witnesses, advocating for victims who wish to share statements with the court, and serving as direct legal representation.
A. Finding and Encouraging Witnesses
Firstly, NGOs can increase the number of victims who serve as witnesses by helping find hard-to-reach victims and promoting a safe environment for witnesses.
One of the biggest challenges to victim participation is in enabling victims to effectively participate in proceedings.46 Many victims are in inaccessible or insecure locations, cannot access regular media channels, have high levels of illiteracy, and have little to no experience with criminal justice systems.47 When it came to ICC proceedings, victims felt discouraged by the lengthy application forms, poor access to information, and physical and conceptual distance between themselves and the Court.48 To avoid repeating these issues, national courts must not only reach victims, but also find a way to assist and support them throughout the application procedure to participate in proceedings.49
NGOs can serve as an important channel for approaching victims and creating such avenues of participation.50 NGOs are often better positioned within victim communities and can find hard-to-reach victims to connect to the court.51 Historically, NGOs have played an important role as intermediaries between victim communities and the ICC.52 They can use this experience to facilitate the work of national courts seeking witnesses.53
It is also important to note that victims often appear as witnesses at great personal risk.54 Thus, it is important for courts to fully appreciate and respond to these risks by establishing witness protection programs and procedures. NGOs can develop safety proposals for such procedures and provide policymakers with their suggestions for a victim-centric approach that would allow victims to feel safe serving as witnesses. NGOs can strengthen their safety proposals by conducting research that emphasizes the importance of witness protection.55 Through such efforts, NGOs can ultimately improve the relationship between courts and the “local communities [to] encourage greater victim participation in international justice and make criminal accountability more meaningful to the lives of survivors.”56
B. Advocating for Active Participation Greater than Serving as Witnesses
Secondly, NGOs can advocate for victims who wish to participate in proceedings in more than a witness capacity. Prosecutors often depend on witness testimony from victims, who are vital sources of information.57 However, the interests of these victims are often sidelined during criminal proceedings.58 When victims only have roles as witnesses, they are judicially relevant to the extent that they provide legally relevant information, but they do not have a participatory role in their own right.59 For example, a witness may be asked about facts relevant to specific elements of a charge, but she will not be given the opportunity to describe her true feelings about these crimes or their impact on her community.60 On the other hand, active participation would consist of victims pursuing their own interests independent from the parties rather than it being assumed that they are an ally of the Prosecutor.61
NGOs can promote greater victim participation by advocating for victims who wish to share statements of suffering with the court. Victims are usually given few opportunities to present their suffering during trials.62 When survivors do participate in judicial proceedings, prosecutors will often present legal narratives that present a narrow conception of victims’ actual experiences.63 As such, victims have felt that their interests were not given sufficient weight in determinations of substantive justice.64 This grossly undermines the impact to victims and their experiences. Allowing victims to share their personal statements with the court would empower victims to “affirm their suffering with a public historical account of the past.”65 Victim participation ensures that the stories of victims remain central during legal proceedings, minimizing detachment from where mass violence occurred.66
NGOs could advocate for this type of victim participation through quiet diplomacy or loud advocacy.67 Quiet diplomacy would involve direct engagement with the courts where NGOs would negotiate with the court on behalf of victims to allow victims to share their statements in court. If this does not work, NGOs can turn to loud advocacy. Through this method, NGOs would vocally draw public attention to the stifling of victims’ voices. If quiet diplomacy does not work, this type of public pressure could convince courts to allow victims to share their sufferings in the courtroom. Indeed, bringing about such change is not beyond the capacity of NGOs. NGOs have assisted with the first token participation of victims and have historically been extremely effective at lobbying to get such systems into place.68
C. Acting as Direct Legal Representation
Lastly, NGOs can increase victim participation by serving as direct legal representation.69 NGOs can appoint themselves as legal counsel for victims who join as civil parties or as members of a victim group.70 Cases that involve overwhelming numbers of eligible victims, many with contradictory views, can be a logistical nightmare for the ICC who lacks the capacity to provide quality victim representation to thousands of victims.71 On the other hand, an NGO has the flexibility to choose to focus its efforts on victims of certain crimes. By focusing efforts on victims of certain crimes, NGOs have more capacity to provide dedicated and specialized legal representation to qualifying victims. For example, REDRESS helps survivors of torture and other similar crimes to obtain justice.72
Providing direct legal representation to victims gives them the opportunity to present their interests in the justice process and redress their suffering.73 Victim participation can help ensure victims’ rights to “due process and transparency of proceedings, as they are independently motivated to see those responsible brought to justice.”74
Opponents may say that the mass participation of victims is too labor intensive or difficult to manage administratively and procedurally.75 However, NGOs have extensive experience in the mass involvement of victims, whether through truth commissions or a variety of other tried and tested methods. As such, NGOs have already shown that it is possible to accommodate large numbers of victims effectively without causing undue burden to the system.76
VI. Considerations
There are several important considerations as NGOs undertake efforts to improve victims’ rights.
Firstly, NGOs must manage victims’ expectations.77 Victims can have high expectations for reparations that are beyond even the mandate of the ICC.78 Given the capacity and finite resources of NGOs, it is important to acknowledge that they cannot realistically deliver justice to all victims of international crimes.79 As such, it is important for NGOs to be as transparent and realistic as possible when conveying to victims what they can and cannot do. NGOs must also be strategic about their own expectations and take on reparations issues while being mindful of how reparations may fit into a larger picture of victims’ needs and priorities.80
Secondly, there is a concern that victim participation can be manipulated for political ends.81 NGOs face frequent temptation to create links primarily with the groups that are politically closest to them, giving their efforts the appearance of participation and legitimacy without being adequately inclusive.82 NGOs may also feel pressured to help victims with greater presence in the media in order to protect themselves from public criticism.83 However, political manipulation is a vast issue that is certainly not unique to victims’ rights NGOs. Such a concern is far from being a fatal flaw. It is possible to be mindful of such constraints without letting them deter us from actively striving to improve rights for all victims.
VII. Conclusion
In conclusion, NGOs can focus their efforts on victims’ rights to aid the implementation of the principle of complementarity. Specifically, NGOs can improve reparations and promote victim participation in court proceedings. Of course, there are important considerations to bear in mind as NGOs endeavor to improve victims’ rights. Still, we should not let the constraints of reality hinder us from working towards our vision of the ideal.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Christopher D. Totten & Nicholas Tyler, Arguing for an Integrated Approach to Resolving the Crisis in Darfur: The Challenges of Complementarity, Enforcement, and Related Issues in the International Criminal Court, 98 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 1069, 1080–81 (2008), available online. ↩
Id. at 1081. ↩
Michael A. Newton, Comparative Complementarity: Domestic Jurisdiction Consistent with the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 167 Mil. L. Rev. 20, 62–63 (Mar. 2001), paywall
(discussing how the ICC can override state jurisdiction). ↩
Id. ↩
Carla Ferstman, The Reparation Regime of the International Criminal Court: Practical Considerations, 15 Leiden J. Int’l L. 667, 668 (Sep. 2002), paywall, doi. ↩
Id. at 668
(explaining how the ICC can order reparations to or in respect of victims, including restitution, compensation, and rehabilitation).
See also Stephen Cody, Victims and Prosecutors: Clientelism, Legalism, and Culture at the International Criminal Court, 53 Cornell Int’l L.J. 339, 345 (2020), available online. ↩
Luke Moffett, Elaborating Justice for Victims at the International Criminal Court: Beyond Rhetoric and the Hague, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1, 8 (2015), available online, doi. ↩
See Carla Ferstman, Reparations at the ICC: The Need for a Human Rights Based Approach to Effectiveness, in Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes, and Crimes Against Humanity 448 (Carla Ferstman & Mariana Goetz eds., 2d ed. Feb. 7, 2020), paywall, doi. ↩
Id. at 448–49. ↩
Cristián Correa, Julie Guillerot & Lisa Magarrell, Reparations and Victim Participation: A Look at the Truth Commission Experience, in Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes, and Crimes Against Humanity 244 (Carla Ferstman & Mariana Goetz eds., 2d ed. Feb. 7, 2020), paywall, doi. ↩
George E. Edwards, Assessing the Effectiveness of Human Rights Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from the Birth of the United Nations to the 21st Century: Ten Attributes of Highly Successful Human Rights NGOs, 18 Mich. St. J. Int’l L. 165, 170 (2009), available online, archived. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 5, at 668. ↩
Id. at 668–69. ↩
Moffett, supra note 7, at 3. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 8, at 470; see also Moffett, supra note 7, at 14
(discussing how in the illustrative Lubanga case, the Court found that reparations should be ordered collectively to the community which dismissed the participating victims’ representations, who wanted individual and collective reparations to alleviate their suffering rather than community awards due to the community supporting and facilitating such crimes). ↩
Moffett, supra note 7, at 2
(noting that victims were disappointed by the ICTY and the ICTR). ↩
Id. at 8. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 5, at 668. ↩
Luke Moffett & Clara Sandoval, Tilting at Windmills: Reparations and the International Criminal Court, 34 Leiden J. Int’l L. 749, 766 (2021), available online, doi. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 243. ↩
Id. at 6. ↩
Id.
(“A lack of adequate information and grounding on the subject, or an undue emphasis on victims’ situation in the current moment, can also unnecessarily limit expectations and consequently limit reparations […] In one context in Colombia, despite explanations about what reparations might include, people at a meeting insisted that the only reparation needed was simply a cessation of the killings.”). ↩
Id. at 5. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 8, at 478. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 256
(noting the cruciality of continuous victim consultation and participation. The situation in Ghana serves as an example of what not to do, where the recommendations on reparations made by the Ghanaian National Reconciliation Commission coincided with the violations raised by victims in their statements). ↩
Id. at 20. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 19. ↩
See Ferstman, supra note 8, at 476. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 243. ↩
Id. at 12. ↩
Id. at 20. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 8, at 471. ↩
Id. at 470. ↩
See Cody, supra note 6, at 372
(noting that partner organizations are better-positioned to navigate the community belief systems of victim communities and have extensive networks to introduce victim-representations to regional operators). ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 265. ↩
Id. ↩
See id.
(discussing the types of bureaucratic steps required in order to receive reparations and how victims’ organizations can help them). ↩
Charles Chernor Jalloh, The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Advancing International Criminal Justice, 1 AJICJ 47, 69 (2015), available online; see also Sara Kendall & Sarah Nouwen, Representational Practices at the International Criminal Court: The Gap between Juridified and Abstract Victimhood, 76 Law & Contemp. Probs. 235 (2013), available paywall,
(“International NGOs have also attempted to orient the project of the [ICC] around the interest of victims.”). ↩
Jalloh, supra note 39, at 70. ↩
Id. at 69. ↩
Moffett, supra note 7, at 22. ↩
Carla Ferstman, Speakers Remarks, NGOs and the Role of Victims in International Criminal Justice (Oslo, Oct. 2, 2006), available online. ↩
Id. at 7. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 242. ↩
Fiona McKay, Victim Participation in Proceedings Before the International Criminal Court, 15 Hum. Rts. Br. 2, 4 (2008), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Carla Ferstman, International Criminal Law and Victims’ Rights, in Routledge Handbook of International Criminal Law 407, 412 (William A. Schabas & Nadia Bernaz eds., Nov. 2010), paywall, doi. ↩
McKay, supra note 46, at 4. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 246. ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 372. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 43, at 7. ↩
See Correa et al., supra note 10, at 248
(discussing that this can be done through building relationships with a wide array of different organizations at national and regional levels in order to build trust, exchange opinions, and receive more informed feedback, criticism and proposals from diverse victims’ organizations). ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 340. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 244. ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 343. ↩
Id. at 340. ↩
Id. at 344. ↩
Kendall & Nouwen, supra note 39, at 5. ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 344. ↩
McKay, supra note 46, at 2–3. ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 344. ↩
Id. ↩
Moffett, supra note 7, at 13. ↩
Id. at 7. ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 346. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 43, at 7. ↩
Id. at 6
(noting that this includes making recommendations on adequate systems of protection, calling for greater field presence, budget process, providing training to investigators, and general outreach). ↩
Id. at 7. ↩
Cody, supra note 6, at 345
(discussing how regional and national courts have started to permit victims to participate in criminal cases as civil parties or as members of a victim group represented by appointed legal counsel). ↩
See id. at 347. ↩
Ferstman, supra note 43, at 1. ↩
See Moffett, supra note 7, at 25
(explaining how simply allowing victims to appear as witnesses or make sentencing statements falls short of encouraging victim ownership of the justice process, or giving victims the freedom to present their interests in court, or providing victims with redress for their suffering). ↩
Moffett, supra note 7, at 19. ↩
See Ferstman, supra note 43, at 7. ↩
Id. ↩
Moffett, supra note 7, at 15. ↩
See id. ↩
Id. at 16. ↩
Correa et al., supra note 10, at 245. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Id. at 8. ↩
Id. ↩
Using Development Banks to Implement Complementarity
I. Introduction
The principle of complementarity, specifically positive complementarity focuses on providing collaborative assistance from the International Criminal Court (ICC). While a core goal of the Rome Statute is for the ICC to work complementary to national criminal jurisdictions, this is not always successfully implemented. Specifically, nations such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa that do not have resources, the legal framework, or infrastructure are often unable to try ICC eligible crimes domestically. As the ICC is often overwhelmed and lacks the capacity to try the high volume of eligible cases, empowering states to try their own cases is of key importance. One solution to this problem is the use of regional organizations. Regional organizations have served many roles and purposes to support nations. A specific example of a regional organization that could help implement complementarity are development banks. These development banks exist to provide capital for investment and assistance in countries. An arguably successful development bank is the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The ADB has implemented rule of law programs in addition to providing technical assistance training throughout Asian and Pacific regions. This model could be used as a blueprint by the African Development Bank (AfDB) with the ICC to create the legal framework and build the necessary infrastructure to successfully try crimes domestically.
The principle of complementarity was introduced by the Rome Statute in the Preamble and Article 1 and gives that the ICC “shall be complementary to national criminal jurisdictions.”1 This complementarity concept allows the ICC to work in conjunction with jurisdictions both domestically and internationally to prevent criminal activity. Further, the principle enables the judicial systems to preserve the responsibility of trying alleged perpetrators.2 Per Article 17 of the Rome Statute, cases are only admissible at the ICC when the “State is unwilling or unable genuinely to carry out the investigation or prosecution.”3 Where “unwilling” may occur when a state has shielded an individual from their responsibility for triable ICC crimes and “unable” may occur when a state’s legal system is ill-equipped or collapsed.4 Accordingly, at the outset, a goal of complementarity was to balance state sovereignty with those who wanted to try a case in a court with universal jurisdiction.5 Moreover, other benefits and reasoning for complementarity have been noted such as:
the protection of the accused if they have been previously prosecuted before national courts;
promotion of efficiency given the ICC is not equipped to handle all serious crime cases; and
placing the responsibility on states to investigate and prosecute alleged crimes.6
Over the years, the ICC has struggled to meet lofty expectations, including the sheer volume of cases expected to be tried.7 Even the ICC Chief Prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo has recognized the ICC shortcomings and has suggested a more active and collaborative approach with national courts.8 Accordingly, the idea of positive complementarity has emerged as a refined form of the principle of complementarity focused on collaborative assistance provided by the ICC. In 2006, the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) outlined the positive approach as encouraging authentic state proceedings “where possible; relies on national and international networks; and participates in a system of international cooperation.”9 While the traditional complementarity principle was based in the theory that states would be implored to try their own crimes in order to avoid ICC intervention, positive complementarity aims to increase the capability of states to try crimes domestically. A “carrot-and-stick” approach has been suggested for implementation of positive complementarity. This approach mirrors the traditional theory that States will be encouraged to try their own cases to avoid ICC intervention; however, unlike the traditional complementarity approach, positive complementarity means the ICC would work directly with States Parties and highlight concerns through public channels to motivate a state to try the case.10 Notably, this approach may be more effective where a state has the domestic capacity to try a case but falls into the “unwilling” category. In contrast, for states that lack domestic capacity, the “carrot-and-stick” approach may not be effective. These states do not lack motivation to try cases, rather they need domestic capacity and infrastructure.
While the ICC can provide assistance in some ways to promote states trying their own cases, it is abundantly clear the ICC needs both resources and credibility11 to effectively implement positive complementarity principles. This is especially true for states that lack infrastructural ability to try cases, where the need for resources is even greater. In order to combat this need, the ICC has worked to “continue expanding its network of contacts with non-States Parties, international organisations and NGOs aimed at fostering a supportive environment”;12 however, the problem still persists for states that lack ability to try cases. While there are a broad range of NGOs, it can be argued the utilization of non-profit development banks could be envisioned as a route for implementation of rule of law for states that fall into the “unable” category and are in need of domestic capacity.
Currently, there are 123 States Parties to the Rome Statute.13 Of the 123 countries, 43 are Western, European, and other states, 33 are African States, 19 are Asia-Pacific States, and 28 are Latin American and Caribbean States.14 With such state diversity, there are wide domestic capacity differences between the member states which present unique challenges for solution implementation. To narrow this discussion and propose an effective solution, though there are a broad range of states that may fall into the “unable” category, this argument will focus on development bank application in African nations.
II. Development Bank History and Exemplary Implementation
A development bank is a “national or regional financial institution designed to provide medium—and long-term capital for productive investment, often accompanied by technical assistance, in poor countries.”15 Development banks are widespread with notable banks including the World Bank, the ADB, the European Investment Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the Inter-American Development Bank Group (IDB), Development Bank of Latin America, and the AfDB.16 Within this group, there are multilateral development banks such as the World Bank and then regional development banks (RDBs) such as the AfDB, ADB, EBRD, and IDB. RDBs are “multilateral financial institutions that provide financial and technical assistance for development in low—and middle-income countries within their regions.”17
A. Exemplary Asian Development Bank
An example of a successful development bank is the ADB. The ADB was established in 1966.18 During this time, the Asia and Pacific regions were experiencing poverty and pervasive, systematic change.19 Notably, at the time of its establishment, Asia was the “poorest region in the world with an annual per capita income of about $100” which was less than a fourth of Latin America and less than Sub-Saharan Africa. Yet today Asia is a top leader in gross domestic production.20 The ADB focuses on “multilateralism, development, and its role as a bank.”21 This means that partners and members of the institution are from non-regional countries and international areas in addition to the Asia and Pacific region.22 The primary banking function of the ADB is to mobilize funds to support development programs and projects in countries that are members.23 In addition to economic development, the Office of the General Counsel manages a Law and Policy Reform (LPR program) as of 1995.24 The premise of the LPR program is that:
The ADB advertises LPR program success in varying legal areas such as environmental, infrastructural, financial, private sector, and public interest law.26 While these areas do not necessarily cover crimes that are triable at the ICC, rule of law programs covering financial institutions crimes such as securities law and money laundering can still help inform solutions for rule of law programs that could cover ICC crimes in African nations.
1. Solomon Islands and Vanuatu
A first example of a successful ADB rule of law program implementation is securities law development in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. The Solomon Islands joined the ADB as a new member in 1973 and Vanuatu joined in 1981.27 On a broad legal scale, prior to ADB programs, laws in these countries were not codified. Lawyers and scholars cited to inaccessible case law, resource cost for its application, challenges for keeping it current, and “remoteness of English law from Pacific conditions.”28 Furthermore, common law had been adopted from a variety of sources including the UK, Australia, NZ, and other common law jurisdictions.29 With respect to securities law specifically, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu faced additional challenges.
The ADB recognized the need for secured transactions reform given individuals in the Pacific region struggled obtaining credit and conducting business suffered.30 In both Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, the secured lending legal framework was rooted in common law or statutes from English law.31 ADB studies conducted prior to reform identified issues with costly legal forms associated with land ownership and title obstacles in both nations.32 While registries existed, they were not reliable or had limited information available. The ADB also gathered information on the comprehensive challenges that these nations faced such as individual and group borrowing limitations, costly legal fees that came with loan documents which required a lawyer, expensive enforcement cost, and lawyers being needed to manually search for paper-based registries amongst other problems.33 In 2008, under initiatives such as Pacific Private Sector Development Initiative,34 the Solomon Islands enacted the Secured Transactions Act (STA) and Vanuatu enacted the Personal Property Security Act (PPSA). Pursuant to the reformed acts, secured lending law was simplified and accomplished establishment of electronic registries and priority rules for competing claims to collateral. While the acts were similar, they had key differences that corresponded to the individual nation’s needs. Though the reform is ongoing, both nations have had greatly improved and simplified secured transactions law that has allowed business and individuals to achieve greater economic development.
2. Money Laundering Reform in Mongolia
In addition to secured transactions reform, the ADB has worked to tackle anti-money laundering and financing terrorism with its members. In 1991, Mongolia joined the ADB as a member.35 Historically, Mongolia struggled with financial corruption and was noted to provide a “fertile environment for criminality and money laundering.”36 In 2011, initial discussions financed by the Cooperation Fund for Regional Trade and Financial Security Initiative, commenced between Mongolia’s government and the ADB to develop technical assistance (TA).37 To develop TA, the ADB first began to tackle the reform through identifying the key issues. The overarching issue was Mongolia’s lack of capacity in its judiciary, prosecutorial, and law enforcement agencies. The ADB broke this down into several driving factors for this lack of capacity including:
Concerns with influx of illegal international funds;
General lack of understanding for handling money laundering crimes;
Lack of specialized investigators and prosecutors with training for economic crimes;
Weak compliance with anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT) international standards as identified by the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). This resulted in being placed on the “grey list”;
General corruption such as smuggling and tax evasion; and
No previous successful prosecution of money laundering crimes despite having investigated money laundering and financing offenses.38
Upon determination of key issues behind Mongolia’s money laundering weaknesses, the ADB implemented a multi-faceted TA program. This program included:
The TA helping train ~40 officers from law enforcement authorities;
Providing international and domestic legal expert and law enforcement consultants; and
A design and monitoring framework with outlined performance targets, data sources, risk assumptions, and activities with milestones.39
Furthermore, in October 2019 Mongolia partnered with additional development and donor nations to implement policies for AML/CFT.40 This enhanced effort included additional sector professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and dealers in stones/metals, amongst others.41 Similar to the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu programs, the TA training in Mongolia was measurably successful. By 2020 Mongolia was taken off the FATF’s “grey list”.
3. AML/CFT Regime in Tajikistan
In 2014, the National Bank of Tajikistan requested TA from the ADB to strengthen their AML/CFT regime.42 Much like the TA program for Mongolia, the ADB first assessed the underlying risks Tajikistan faced. The TA provided:
A national risk assessment;
Legal and regulatory changes needed to combat gaps with new FATF recommendations;
An enhanced AML/CFT control system; and
Expertly trained staff.43
The ADB accomplished the TA through providing international AML/CFT and international and domestic legal experts to train the necessary Tajikistan individuals. While this had an overall similar implementation and successful outcome to Mongolia, a notable issue the ADB faced in Tajikistan was change of key personnel throughout the TA. Specifically, the Deputy Chairman for the National Bank of Tajikistan, the Assistant to the President on Legal Issues, and the Director of Financial Monitoring Department were all replaced during the implementation period.44 The ADB highlighted things they learned and would have done differently such as having a transition arrangement agreed upon in advance to avoid needing to seek re-agreement.
III. Use of Development Bank in Sub-Saharan Africa
A. Unique Considerations in African Nations
Much like the first step in the Solomon Islands and Vanautu was identifying key obstacles such as lack of common law, challenges unique to Sub-Saharan Africa must be identified. Once identified, they can be addressed so that the African Development Bank could be utilized to develop legal infrastructure to try ICC eligible crimes. While each individual African state will have distinctive challenges for application, looking to various nation’s common systematic judicial histories and struggles,45 can be informative.
Throughout Africa there is a wide range of legal traditions which are impacted by culture, colonial history, religion, etc.; however, researchers have highlighted parallels in legal systems prior to colonialization across the continent. Specifically:
Notably, this approach is ideologically based in “balance and harmony” over the traditional western theories of retribution and preventative criminal justice.
In addition to ideological differences, African nations face significant resource constraints in comparison to the resources available to the modern day ADB and its member states. According to the World Bank, the current Sub-Saharan African GDP per capita is 1645.5.47 In comparison, a nation like the United States has a GDP per capita of 69,287.5.48 Additionally, East Asia and the Pacific have a GDP per capita of 13,037.5.49 These differences can help guide proper implementation of development bank utilization in Sub-Saharan Africa.
B. Bank Implementation Proposal in African Nations
The ADB discussion provided examples of countries that needed policy reform (Solomon Islands and Vanuatu) versus nations that needed TA (Mongolia and Tajikistan). The challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa above demonstrate a compounding need for both policy reform and TA which can be guided by a combination of the ADB examples. The AfDB already exists to mobilize and allocate resources for the investment in regional member countries and provide policy advice and technical assistance to support development efforts in Africa.50 Given the infrastructure for policy reform and TA already exists through the AfDB, the ICC could utilize the AfDB to build upon the existing structure to develop ability to try ICC eligible crimes throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.
1. Policy Reform
First, the ICC could work with the AfDB to establish policy reform using Solomon Islands and Vanuatu as a guide. Like was done in the STA and PPSA, there could be similar acts adopted throughout Africa with variances for key cultural or political needs. Modifying to adapt for local needs while retaining the majority of the policy reform, once drafted, would reduce expense, reduce time needed to develop policies for multiple Sub-Saharan African nations, and create legal stability and consistency for trying cases. ADB’s model for bringing in legal experts to help develop and draft the policy reform could be followed.
2. Technical Assistance
In addition to policy reform, the AfDB could implement technical assistance training of judiciary, prosecution, and law enforcement to handle criminal cases under the new policies as reformed. Notably, the model used in both Mongolia and Tajikistan could be followed by the AfDB. This includes first identifying the weaknesses and needs of the nation and then:
Training authorities,
Providing both domestic and international legal consultants,
Providing both domestic and international law enforcement consultants, and
Working with other donors and field experts as needed.
Additionally, Tajikistan can be uniquely informative given political and personnel instability in Africa. The AfDB could ensure that transition arrangement could be agreed upon in advance to avoid needing to seek re-agreement in instances of instability.
IV. Conclusion
The use of development banks poses a distinctive solution opportunity for nations in need of legal infrastructure and development. While the use of development banks may not pose a solution to implement complementarity in all ICC member states, these regional organizations are positioned to be able to part of the solution in implementing the principle of complementarity in developing nations. The success of the Asian Development Bank in Asia and Pacific regions offers a model for the ways in which development banks can provide rule of law programs and technical assistance to nations in need. Furthermore, the various projects that the ADB has helped to implement across several nations can guide solution implementation throughout Sub-Saharan Africa with the AfDB. Using the ADB model in combination with expertise from those specializing in Sub-Saharan African needs, the AfDB could be used to create rule of law programs and provide technical assistance training to Sub-Saharan nations. These programs and technical assistance could provide the foundation for Sub-Saharan nations being able to try crimes domestically rather than being reliant on the ICC.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9, as amended [hereinafter Rome Statute], Preamble, Article 1 available online. ↩
International Criminal Court, Understanding the International Criminal Court (Aug. 22, 2013), available online. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 1, at Art. 17. ↩
Olympia Bekou, Complementarity Principle, Oxford Bibliographies (Jun. 25, 2013), paywall, doi. ↩
Benjamin N. Schiff, Building the International Criminal Court 73 (2008), paywall, doi. ↩
Paul Selis, ICTJ, Handbook on Complementarity (2016), available online. ↩
How can the ICC Maximize its Crime Prevention Impact?, ICC Forum (Oct. 6, 2011), available online; see also Daniel Trachsler, The ICC: High Expectations, Ambiguous Record, 130 CSS 1 (Mar. 2013), available online. ↩
Luis Moreno-Ocampo, ICC Prosecutor, Statement to Diplomatic Corps. (Feb. 12, 2004), available online. ↩
Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy (Sep. 14, 2006), available online. ↩
Katharine A. Marshall, Prevention and Complementarity in the International Criminal Court: A Positive Approach, 17 Hum. Rts. Br. 21 (2010), available online. ↩
Aaron Gray-Block, Lacking State Support, ICC in Need of Credibility, Reuters, Jun. 12, 2010, available online. ↩
Report on Prosecutorial Strategy, supra note 9. ↩
The States Parties to the Rome Statute, ASP, available online (last visited Aug. 30, 2023). ↩
Id. ↩
Development Bank, Encyclo. Britannica, available online (last visited Aug. 30, 2023). ↩
Adrian Lawrence & Harriet Gray, Multilateral Lenders and Regional Development Banks, Proj. Fin. L. Rev. (Aug. 9, 2023), available online (last visited Sep. 1, 2023). ↩
Jenny Ottenhoff, CGD, Regional Development Banks (2011), available online. ↩
Asian Development Bank, ADB Through the Decades: ADB’s First Decade (1966–1976) (Dec. 2016), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Structural Forces Economics, U.S. DNI, at Fig. 4: Economic Weight Shifting to Asia (Mar. 2021), available online. ↩
Peter McCawley, ADB, Banking on the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank 2 (2d ed. 2017), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 6. ↩
Office of the General Counsel, ADB, Law and Policy Reform Program: Effective Legal Systems for Sustainable Development (2016), available online. ↩
Id. at 2. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Id. at 101. ↩
Fred Ellinghaus & Ted Wright, ADB, Reforming Pacific Contract Law (Aug. 2009), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Paul Holden, Melissa Dayrit, Alma Pekmezovic & Terry Reid, ADB, Unlocking Finance for Growth: Secured Transactions Reform in Pacific Island Economies (2014), available online. ↩
Id. at 12. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Pacific Private Sector Development Initiative, Business Law Reform (Dec. 2016), available online.
(The Pacific Private Sector Development Initiative (PSDI) is co-financed by ADB, the Government of Australia, and the Government of New Zealand and was developed to help fourteen Pacific members achieve sustainable economic growth through business reform. Specifically, “PSDI’s team of experts provides a range of technical assistance that promotes private sector development in the region. This includes specialized support in the areas of business law reform, access to finance, reforming state-owned enterprises, establishing public—private partnerships, the economic empowerment of women, and promoting competition.”). ↩
McCawley, supra note 21, at 204. ↩
Casals & Associates, Contractors to USAID, Assessment of Corruption in Mongolia (Aug. 31, 2005), available online. ↩
Asian Development Bank, Mongolia: Strengthening the Anti-Money Laundering Regime (Dec. 2012), available online. ↩
Id. at 2. ↩
Id. at 4–5. ↩
Declan Magee & Carlo Antonia Garcia, ADB Blog, How Did Mongolia Get Off the Money Laundering Watch List in Record Time? (Dec. 11, 2020), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Ma. Celeste Grace A. Saniel-Gois, ADB, Tajikistan: Strengthening the Anti-Money Laundering Regime (Jan. 2020), available online. ↩
Id. at 3. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
John Mukum Mbaku, International Justice: The International Criminal Court and Africa, 2014 Foresight Afr. 9 (Dec. 20, 2013), available online. ↩
Samuel O. Manteaw, John Mensah Sarbah and African Value Systems in Legal Education, 27 UG L.J. 58, 75 (2014), paywall. ↩
GDP Per Capita, All Countries and Economies, The World Bank, available online (last visited Aug. 30, 2023). ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Mission & Strategy, AFDB, available online (last visited Aug. 30, 2023). ↩
I. Introduction
International law increasingly recognizes that States have a moral and legal duty to hold perpetrators of grave international crimes accountable.1 To fulfill this duty, a number of States have adopted universal jurisdiction laws empowering national courts to assert jurisdiction over select crimes based solely on their heinous nature, without any connection to the State.2 This Comment conducts a comparative analysis of German, Senegalese, and Spanish attempts to exercise universal jurisdiction to prosecute foreign nationals for crimes against humanity to ascertain what challenges States face in reaching the trial stage. First, in Section II, I provide a basic definition of universal jurisdiction and an overview of how Germany, Senegal, and Spain each incorporated the concept into their national laws. Next, in Section III(A), I discuss the German prosecution of Syrian national Anwar Raslan, in Section III(B), the Senegalese prosecution of former Chadian dictator Hissène Habré, and in Section III(C), the failed Spanish attempt to prosecute former Chinese President Jiang Zemin. In Section IV, I compare the respective successes and challenges of each case to draw conclusions about what obstacles States are likely to face in reaching the trial stage in universal jurisdiction prosecutions. Finally, based on this comparative analysis, I conclude that universal jurisdiction can be a valuable tool for prosecuting international crimes under the right conditions.
II. Definition of Universal Jurisdiction and Overview of the German, Senegalese, Spanish Universal Jurisdiction Statutes
There is no single accepted definition for universal jurisdiction. The general premise as, defined by the Princeton Principle, is the assertion of criminal jurisdiction:
Universal jurisdiction is typically exercised to prosecute crimes that are so heinous they are “injurious to the international community as a whole.”4 While most universal jurisdiction laws include some aspect of this general definition, scope and admissibility requirements vary greatly among States. Thus, to effectively analyze the individual German, Senegalese, and Spanish universal jurisdiction cases discussed below, it is important to understand the major features of each States’ universal jurisdiction laws.
A. German Universal Jurisdiction Law
German law affords courts significantly broader discretion to exercise universal jurisdiction than almost any other country.5 On June 26, 2002, the German Code of Crimes against International Law (CCAIL) entered into force, and granted German courts jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.6 CCAIL defines these crimes in accordance with the Rome Statute.7 CCAIL confers broad jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute these crimes even when they were committed abroad and “bear no relation to Germany.”8 Likewise, CCAIL does not impose any double criminality or subsidiary requirements, meaning that Germany can try individuals for the aforementioned international crimes even when the crimes are not recognized in the country in which they were committed.9 Additionally, German courts do not give priority to states or international tribunals with more direct jurisdiction.10
B. Senegalese Universal Jurisdiction Law
Senegal incorporated the principle of universal jurisdiction into national law in 2007 by amending the Senegalese Code of Criminal Procedure.11 The 2007 amendments incorporate the Rome Statute into domestic law and provide for universal jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, as well as other crimes, including terrorism, and offenses against the security of the State.12 Additionally, under Article 98 of the Senegalese Constitution, any ratified international treaty is considered binding domestic law.13 Thus, a number of treaties Senegal has ratified, such as the Geneva Conventions and The Convention against Torture, could also be legal bases for universal jurisdiction prosecutions in Senegalese courts.14 However, the law confines the exercise of universal jurisdiction to situations where the perpetrator is arrested in or extradited to Senegal, or a victim resides in Senegalese territory.15
C. Spanish Universal Jurisdiction Law
Spain first incorporated the principle of universal jurisdiction into domestic law in the 1985 Organic Law on the Judiciary which formally defined the jurisdiction, organization, and operation of the Spanish Judiciary.16 Article 23.4 provided Spanish courts with jurisdiction over Spanish nationals and foreigners accused of committing serious crimes under Spanish criminal law including genocide, terrorism, piracy, and any crime that should be prosecuted pursuant to an international treaty.17 A subsequent amendment added to that list crimes against humanity.18 The initial iteration of Article 23.4 conferred extremely broad authority on the Spanish Judiciary to prosecute perpetrators of serious crimes without any connection to Spain. However, amendments to Article 23.4 have since narrowed the scope of Spanish universal jurisdiction. First, amendments passed in 2009 and 2014 established the requirement of a nexus between Spain and the alleged crime; today, for Spain to assert jurisdiction, it must be established that alleged perpetrators are present in Spain, that victims are Spanish nationals, or that the case has some important connection with Spain.19 The 2009 and 2014 amendments also restricted Spanish universal jurisdiction by introducing the principle of subsidiarity.20 Under Article 23.5, Spain will cede jurisdiction when a case is being investigated and prosecuted by (a) an international court established in accordance with the treaties and conventions signed by Spain or (b) either the State where the offence was committed or the alleged offender’s State of nationality.21
III. German, Senegalese, and Spanish Case Studies
This Section provides a brief background on each case and information on the period from the initiation of an investigation to the start of the prosecution or closing of the case.
A. German Prosecution of Anwar Raslan
From 2011 to 2012, Raslan served as a senior investigative officer in the al-Khatib branch of the Syrian intelligence services.22 Under Raslan’s command, officers illegally detained members of political opposition movements, and held them in in inhumane conditions, engaging in the brutal psychological and physical torture of over four thousand persons.23 At least fifty-eight people were killed as a direct result of these inhumane detention conditions and torture.24 In December 2012, Raslan fled to Jordan and was granted asylum in Germany in 2014.25
The Syrian crisis garnered substantial international attention and, in 2011, the German Federal Prosecutor opened a structural investigation into crimes against humanity committed by Syrian government branches.26 In 2015, the influx of nearly one million Syrian refugees to Germany afforded German authorities and European human rights organizations rare, direct access to victims, witnesses, and material evidence.27 In 2017, the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights filed a criminal complaint in Germany on behalf of several Syrian refugees whose firsthand accounts implicated numerous high-ranking intelligence officers.28 The ECCHR’s complaint and other reports collected by human rights organizations first drew the attention of German officials to Anwar Raslan.
Around the same time, fearing retribution from former colleagues, Raslan approached German police, and confessed to his role in the Syrian intelligence service seeking special protective services.29 To investigate Raslan, German police interviewed more than seventy people and lawfully searched Raslan’s home.30 Relying on information collected by both the German police and international organizations, the Federal Prosecutor arrested and formally indicted Raslan in 2019.31 Preparing for trial, police investigators conducted interviews of local victims and witnesses and coordinated with French, Swedish, and Norwegian authorities to interview Syrian witnesses living across Europe.32 German authorities also gained access to a large swath of investigative information collected by international actors. For example, the United Nations (U.N.) Commission of Inquiry provided German authorities access to more survivor interviews, forensic reports, videos, and satellite imagery, some of which were eventually admitted into evidence for in Raslan’s trial.33 Similar reports compiled by a number of international human rights organizations were also admitted into evidence.34 On January 13, 2022, the Higher Regional Court of Koblenz found former Syrian intelligence officer, Anwar Raslan, guilty of crimes against humanity in the form of killing, torture, severe deprivation of liberty, rape, and sexual assault, and sentenced him to life imprisonment.35
B. Senegalese Prosecution of Hissène Habré
On May 30, 2016, former Chadian dictator, Hissène Habré, was convicted of crimes against humanity, war crimes, and torture in a hybrid international Senegalese court.36 The conviction of Habré was particularly significant because it was the first time in the world that a former leader of a country was convicted of human rights violations by the court of another country exercising universal jurisdiction.37 Habré seized power in Chad in 1982 and ruled until 1990 when he was deposed and fled to Senegal.38 During this period, Habré’s regime engaged in widespread political killings, systematic torture, arbitrary arrest and ethnic cleansing.39 It is estimated that Habré’s government is responsible for roughly forty thousand deaths.40 When Habré was overthrown in 1990, surviving victims rallied together and, with the support of a national Truth Commission, and a number of international human rights organizations filed a criminal complaint against Habré in Senegalese court in 2000.41 While a Senegalese judge initially indicted Habré in response to the complaint, actual judicial proceedings remained stalled for over a decade.42
One major obstacle to prosecution was political interference by Senegalese President Wade and his administration who pressured Senegalese courts to declare they did not have jurisdiction or competence to try Habré in 2001.43 Over the next four years, victims continued to lobby for justice and, in 2005, Belgium, under its own universal jurisdiction statute, indicted Habré and sought his extradition from Senegal.44 However, President Wade declined to extradite Habré to Belgium and instead referred the situation to the African Union (AU). A committee of African Jurists appointed by the AU ultimately issued a decision calling on Senegal to prosecute Habré on behalf of Africa.45 President Wade cooperated by amending Senegalese law to grant national courts jurisdiction over Habré’s case but demanded the international community provide upfront funding of €33 million before proceedings could begin once again stalling prosecution.46
Another significant obstacle emerged when the Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) issued a decision that Senegal’s national courts could not prosecute Habré, and instead suggested that Habré be tried before a “special ad hoc procedure of an international character.”47 In response, the AU proposed a plan for an “extraordinary chamber” of international character that could prosecute Habré within Senegal’s existing court system.48 President Wade again resisted a Senegalese prosecution and, in 2011, abruptly withdrew from extraordinary chamber negotiations.49 Throughout 2011, Wade sought to expel Habré to other African countries, including Rwanda and Chad, to avoid a Senegalese prosecution.50 However, active resistance from numerous human rights organizations prevented Habré’s expulsion.51
In 2012, when President Wade lost the presidential election to President Sall, newly-elected President Sall swiftly reinitiated talks to create the Extraordinary African Chambers (EAC).52 The EAC was formally inaugurated on February 8, 2013 with the jurisdiction to prosecute “those most responsible” for international crimes committed in Chad between 1982 and 1990 under Senegalese law.53 On July 2, 2013, Habré was indicted for crimes against humanity, war crimes, and torture and placed in pre-trial detention.54 To prepare for trial, investigative officials conducted four missions to Chad where they met with victims and gathered physical evidence, and collected statements from thousands of witnesses.55 A large array of material evidence collected by international human rights groups active in Chad from 2000 to 2013 was also admitted at the EAC.56
C. Closed Spanish Case Against Former Chinese President Jiang Zemin
Jiang Zemin served as the President of China from 1993 to 2003.57 Beginning in 1994, Zemin’s administration launched a new, brutal repression campaign in Tibet.58 Under this campaign, Chinese officials suppressed Tibetan religious and cultural customs, arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents, forcibly sterilized Tibetan women, and increased the Chinese population transfer into Tibet.59 In 2005, Thubten Wangchen Sherpa, a Tibetan victim and naturalized Spanish national, worked with numerous civil society groups to file a complaint at the Spanish National Audience against Zemin and six other high-ranking Chinese officials for genocide, torture, state terrorism, and crimes against humanity.60
In 2006, the National Audience admitted the case and began a preliminary investigation, inviting Sherpa to testify.61 The Chinese Foreign Ministry immediately decried the allegations and investigation calling them “calumnies… motivated by political reasons [in order to] damage the international image of China and bilateral relations between Spain and China.”62 Over the next few years proceedings stalled as Spanish authorities struggled to gather evidence in the face of continued, vocal opposition from China.63 The investigation was particularly challenging because Spain had limited access to Tibetan victims and witnesses. For example, the Indian government refused to cooperate with Spanish requests to interview exiled Tibetans living in India.64 The National Audience also faced obstacles within Spain amid growing political opposition to the Spanish Judiciary’s broad exercise of universal jurisdiction to try international crimes.65 In 2009, in response to these sentiments, the Spanish Parliament passed almost unanimously the limiting amendments to the Spanish universal jurisdiction law outlined in Section II(C) above. As a result, in 2010, a Spanish judge dismissed the Tibetans’ case, holding that there was not a sufficiently strong link between Spain and the Tibetan crisis under the amended terms.66 However, a few years later, another Spanish Judge, Ismael Moreno, reexamined the case and determined that Sherpa’s status as both a Tibetan victim and a naturalized Spanish citizen established a sufficient link between Spain and the atrocities committed in Tibet.67 Following this decision, in February 2014, Judge Moreno issued an arrest warrant for Zemin.68 The Chinese Foreign Ministry responded aggressively, recalling Spain’s ambassador, calling Judge Moreno’s decision a “despicable act,” and stating that it could “destroy the extremely friendly relations between China and Spain.”69
The Spanish government and public remained sharply divided on the proceedings. While pro-Tibetan civil society groups and liberal factions advocated for prosecution, conservatives expressed skepticism about whether Spain was the appropriate forum for the case. Illustratively, Carlos Diver, the President of the General Council of the Spanish Judiciary, stated that “we cannot become the judicial policemen of the world” in response to the assertion of Spanish jurisdiction.70 Likewise, in the face of China’s strong opposition, many conservative politicians feared that the potential economic costs of souring relations with one of Spain’s most important economic partners far outweighed the interests of justice.71 In June 2014, the National Audience reexamined the case and once again dismissed it due to an insufficient link between Spain and the Tibetan crisis. A Pro-Tibetan group accused the Audience of balking in the face of Chinese opposition and issuing an illegitimate legal decision, calling it a “blatant and shameful capitulation to pressure from Beijing.”72 On April 22, 2015, the Spanish Supreme Court upheld the dismissal of the case against Zemin, definitively closing the investigation.73
IV. Challenges in Reaching the Prosecution Stage
Comparing the respective successes and challenges of the German, Senegalese, and Spanish cases discussed above reveals a number of factors that can either propel prosecutions forward or present obstacles to States exercising universal jurisdiction. In this Section, I discuss the impact of government commitment to the prosecution and internal politics, development of law, investigative capacity, and interstate power dynamics.
A. Government Commitment to the Prosecution and Internal Politics
First, resistance within the State government can substantially delay or completely block courts from reaching the trial stage. In Senegal, for example, President Wade’s unwillingness to prosecute Habré delayed his trial by almost fifteen years. Indeed, Habré’s trial likely would not have been effectuated without President Sall’s election in 2012; in the year leading up to this election Wade attempted to expel Habré multiple times.74 Had Wade been reelected, those efforts likely would have continued. Instead, President Sall made the Habré prosecution a high priority of his administration and immediately reopened talks to establish the EAC.75 This political shift within the Senegalese State government was thus instrumental in Habré’s prosecution reaching the trial stage. Similarly, the German government’s consistent commitment to investigating the crisis in Syria, even before individual perpetrators had been identified, empowered German officials to effectuate perpetrator arrests, indictments, and trials efficiently.
In contrast, in Spain, the conservative party’s growing influence on the State divided the government and blocked efforts to prosecute Zemin. Internal political division about the appropriate role for the Spanish Judiciary led to legislative amendments and judicial decisions that disrupted the pre-trial process. Illustratively, the initial complaint against Zemin was filed in 2006 and the case had made no significant progress by 2014 when it was officially closed.76 In contrast, a unified government committed to carrying out the prosecution expediates the initial investigation, arrest, and indictment. Illustratively, in Germany, Raslan was arrested, indicted, and convicted within only roughly four years of the first complaints implicating him in crimes against humanity.
B. Development of Law
The national courts of States exercising universal jurisdiction often grapple with novel issues of law that can delay investigations and prosecutions. There is no uniform approach to universal jurisdiction and many States are still developing and honing their universal jurisdiction laws. Thus, States often amend their universal jurisdiction statutes to adhere to emerging international norms. Amendments can force national courts to reexamine ongoing national proceedings. This was a significant obstacle in the Spanish prosecution of President Zemin. There, mid-investigation amendments to the universal jurisdiction law left Spanish courts divided on whether they could lawfully establish jurisdiction over the Tibetan situation. Resolving such complex legal questions requires extensive, timely, and costly pre-trial litigation efforts that can stall or impede prosecutions.
Furthermore, even where a State has not recently amended its universal jurisdiction law, national courts still have to grapple with novel issues related to (among other things) admissibility, extradition, venue, scope, and applicability of law. For example, criminal defendants may lawfully challenge the States’ jurisdiction over his case. This is particularly problematic where, as with the Habré case, multiple States or courts attempt to assert jurisdiction over a defendant’s case. There, multiple legal forums, including Belgian courts, the ECOWAS Court of Justice, and AU legal committees examined legal questions in Habré’s case. This led to conflicting, inconsistent decisions about what forum Habré could be prosecuted in that delayed the actualization of his trial.
C. Investigative Capacity
Where domestic officials have direct access to witnesses and physical evidence as well as investigative support from other States and organizations, a case is more likely to reach the trial stage. First, the ability to collect testimony from victims and witnesses significantly expedites the pre-trial process. This was evident in Germany’s prosecution of Raslan; direct access to Syrian refugees who had experienced or witnessed violence firsthand enabled the German Federal Prosecutor to identify individual perpetrators and build evidentiary bases for indictments more swiftly. Likewise, investigative officials for the EAC collected important evidence by traveling to Chad to conduct fact-finding missions.
With this, resources and support from international actors significantly improves investigative capacity. For example, to prepare for Raslan’s trial, German authorities partnered with multiple European States and utilized evidentiary reports gathered by a number of different organizations including the United Nations, NGOs, Syrian resistance groups, and other human rights groups.77 The EAC also received substantial support from Chadian victim and human rights groups who gathered evidence in Chad for over a decade before the EAC was even created.78 Conversely, Spain struggled to gather evidence against Zemin. Tibetan victim and human rights organizations made efforts to collect victim testimony and other forms of evidence. However, Spain was routinely denied direct access to Tibet or other areas, like India, with a substantial population of Tibetans.79
D. Interstate Power Dynamics
It is more difficult to bring a powerful actor, particularly one from a powerful State, to trial. First, when the accused themselves can wield political influence, they are more likely to evade prosecution. This is particularly relevant for former heads of State. Beyond any diplomatic immunity they may be afforded, former heads of State can use residual political influence to incentivize other States to not pursue arrest and prosecution. For example, Habré’s lingering influence in Africa likely contributed to President Wade’s extreme resistance to arresting, extraditing, or prosecuting him. In contrast, Raslan, a Syrian refugee who briefly served in a relatively low-ranking position, did not have any political influence to exert on the German Judiciary or public.
Moreover, States may shield nationals from international accountability by refusing to extradite them. For example, it is highly unlikely that China would ever have extradited Zemin even if a competent international court could have established jurisdiction over him. With this, States like China with greater international clout can influence States to pursue or drop certain investigations. This was also evident in the Zemin case where even the hypothetical threat of economic blow-back from China contributed to the narrowing of Spain’s universal jurisdiction law and the eventual closing of Zemin’s case.
V. Conclusion
Universal jurisdiction may be a valuable tool to hold individual perpetrators of grave international crimes accountable under the right circumstances. Successfully and efficiently reaching the trial stage of a universal jurisdiction prosecution generally requires a unified governmental commitment to the prosecution, well-developed national universal jurisdiction laws, the assistance of international investigative bodies, and advantageous interstate power dynamics.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Dalila V. Hoover, Universal Jurisdiction not so Universal: A Time to Delegate to the International Criminal Court, 52 Cornell L. Sch. Grad. Student Papers 7–8 (Jun. 4, 2011), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Stephen Macedo ed., The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction, Principle 1 (2001), available online. ↩
Hoover, supra note 1, at 6. ↩
Human Rights Watch, The Legal Framework for Universal Jurisdiction in Germany 1 (2014) [hereinafter Legal Framework for Germany], available online. ↩
Code of Crimes against International Law, § 6–13 (Jun. 26, 2002, as amended Dec. 23, 2016) [hereinafter CCAIL], available online. ↩
Legal Framework for Germany, supra note 5, at 1. ↩
CCAIL, supra note 6, § 1. ↩
Human Rights Watch, supra note 5, at 2. ↩
Id. ↩
Ministry of Justice, Republic of Senegal, U.N. Doc. 17-08094E, Information and Observations on the Scope and Application of Universal Jurisdiction, Submission to the U.N. General Assembly (2017), available online. ↩
Id. at 2. ↩
Id. at 3. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Kingdom of Spain, Organic Law 6/1985 on the Judiciary, 157 (Jul. 2, 1985, as amended through May 2007), available online. ↩
Id. Art. 23.4. ↩
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, Kingdom of Spain, U.N. Doc. 16-05499E, Contribution of Spain on the Topic “The Scope and Application of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction,” Submission to U.N. General Assembly (2016), available online. ↩
Id. at 4. ↩
Id. ↩
Rosa Ana Alija Fernández, The 2014 Reform of Universal Jurisdiction in Spain From All to Nothing, ZIS 717, 724 (2014), available online. ↩
Id. at 1. ↩
Human Rights Watch, Seeking Justice for Syria: How an Alleged Syrian Intelligence Officer was Put on Trial in Germany (Mar. 2022) [hereinafter Seeking Justice for Syria], available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 11. ↩
Anwar Raslan, Trial Int’l (Mar. 30, 2023), available online (last visited Aug. 28, 2023). ↩
Seeking Justice for Syria, supra note 23. ↩
Id. ↩
Joachim J. Savelsberg & Miray Philips, Epistemic Power of Universal Jurisdiction: Spreading Mass Atrocity Crimes, 31 Minn. J. Int’l L. 57, 70 (2022), available online. ↩
Seeking Justice for Syria, supra note 23. ↩
Anwar Raslan, supra note 26. ↩
Seeking Justice for Syria, supra note 23. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Anwar Raslan, supra note 26. ↩
Reed Brody, Brot für die Welt, Victims Bring a Dictator to Justice: The Case of Hissène Habré 6 (Jun. 2017), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Brody, supra note 36, at 7. ↩
Human Rights Watch, Q&A: The Case of Hissène Habré before the Extraordinary African Chambers in Senegal (May 3, 2016), available online. ↩
Brody, supra note 36, at 8. ↩
Id. at 8, 10. ↩
Id. at 13. ↩
Id. at 10. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 11. ↩
Id. at 12. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
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Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Senegal and the African Union on the Establishment of Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System, 1 AJICJ 107, Art. 1 (2015), paywall, doi. ↩
Brody, supra note 36, at 13. ↩
Id. at 13–14. ↩
Id. at 14. ↩
Jiang Zemin, Trial Int’l (Apr. 27, 2016), available online. ↩
International Commission of Jurists, Tibet: Human Rights and the Rule of Law 80 (Dec. 1997), available online. ↩
Id. at 80–81. ↩
Craig Peters, The Impasse of Tibetan Justice: Spain’s Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction in Prosecuting Chinese Genocide, 181 Seattle U. L. Rev. 39 (2015), available online. ↩
Id. at 185. ↩
Id. at 186. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 187. ↩
Id. at 188. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 189. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 187. ↩
Id. at 190. ↩
Id. ↩
José Manuel Romero, Supreme Court Upholds Dismissal of Tibet Genocide Investigation, El País (Apr. 22, 2015), available online. ↩
Brody, supra note 36, at 12. ↩
Id. ↩
Peters, supra note 60, at 183, 190. ↩
Seeking Justice in Syria, supra note 23. ↩
Brody, supra note 36, at 14. ↩
Peters, supra note 60, at 186. ↩
The comment attempts to reimagine the frameworks of the principle of complementarity under the Rome Statute in correlation with the sub-Saharan African context. The comment advances the debate over the role of the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR) with the incoming of the amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the ACJHR titled as the Malabo Protocol.1 I aim to shed light on the possible tensions between the ICC and the ACJHR together with assessing the provisional incompatibilities harbored in the Malabo Protocol when in juxtaposition with the Rome Statute through the works of Jacky Fung Wai Nam. And in conclusion, the comment offers recommendations on how the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) can proactively assist regional institutions in Africa such as the ACJHR in deterring future atrocities while exercising its ratione materiae jurisdictions subsequent to the enforcement of the amendments under the Malabo Protocol to strengthen the rule of law both internationally as well as nationally.
While the intentions of the African Union Assembly on paper may have been to serve justice and preserve peace within the territories of Africa, the actions speak less towards its legal responsibility and louder in the direction of its political convenience.2 A little peek into the history and reason why the ACJHR was established, justifies why the leaders of the African Union Assembly considered this to be an appropriate solution to prosecute the perpetrators of African descent instead of opting for the last resort, that is prosecution before the ICC, especially after the Situation in Kenya.3 It is evident that it was in response to the deteriorated equation between the ICC and the African Union Assembly grounded on the brusque allegations against the Court for catering to the make-believe African bias.4 The well-thought-out construction of the Malabo Protocol has proven to be a sharp divergence from the prosecution powers of other international criminal tribunals, especially the ICC,5 which shall be discussed in greater detail in the next few sections of the comment. Thereby, this has led many scholars in the international community to raise speculations about the legitimacy of the African Union to not only establish the ACJHR but also about the real motivations of drafting the Malabo Protocol.
It is not wrong to argue that at the heart of the fragile relationship between the ICC and the African Union Assembly lies the grounds of admissibility governed under the principle of complementarity as specified under Article 17 of the Rome Statute.6 Thus, African Union Assembly’s non-cooperation policy shares a strong correlation with the principle of complementarity which has led to the expansion of the jurisdiction of the ACJHR and the subsequent adoption of the Malabo Protocol.7 Ironically, the solution to the African Union Assembly’s nasty criticism also lies in the statutory text of the principle of complementarity. While the effectiveness of the Malabo Protocol can only be visualized at the moment, the role of the ACJHR in the larger international criminal justice system can be determined. It is propounded here that the same be done through the lens of positive complementarity.8 Positive complementarity is said to have made a shift from the traditional principle of complementarity. Under the traditional principle, the OTP and the Chief Prosecutor of the ICC was responsible for protecting the sovereignty of its State Parties that are obligated to nationally prosecute from international intervention by the ICC.9 In addition to this, positive complementarity envisages a cooperative correlation between the regional judicial institutions and the ICC while enhancing the ability and willingness of these institutions to shoulder legitimate investigations and prosecutions.10 This is to say, positive complementarity strengthens the affirmative duty of the ICC, specifically the OTP to transfer evidence, training programs for regional prosecutors and/or militia personnel et al.11
Likewise, there are sufficient reasons to confer optimism in the effectiveness of the up and running of the regional courts of human rights, hypothecated on the success of firstly the European Court of Human Rights then followed by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights over the last few decades.12 The ethos of this statement lies in the valuable contributions made by these regional institutions at the international platform by providing both human rights protections as well as yielding to democratic decision-making at the domestic levels while bringing perpetrators to justice, diffusing the ongoing human rights abominations, and the occurrence of future such abominations.13 However, it is predicted that this may not be the case for the ACJHR. There are a significant number of factors to be a concern for both the ICC and the ACJHR, especially after the advent of the Malabo Protocol which shockingly mirrors multiple fundamental provisions of the Rome Statute.
Against this backdrop, in the June of 2014, the African Union unilaterally drafted and adopted the Malabo Protocol as an additional segment to the two pre-existing segments of the ACJHR that is the general affairs and the human rights segments.14 The Malabo Protocol extends the jurisdiction of the ACJHR over four of the already universally recognized mass atrocities of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crime of aggression, along with ten additional international crimes such as piracy, terrorism, money laundering, etc. While some scholars argue that this amendment caters to the crimes that are beyond the jurisdictional reach of the ICC to end impunity and prevent future atrocities, on the other hand, another set of scholars argues the expanded jurisdiction is a path toward future dysfunctionality of the ICC. I attempt to echo the criticism against the ACJHR for adjudicating upon four core crimes that are enshrined under Article 5 of the Rome Statute that is within the sole ratione materiae jurisdiction of the ICC together with the crimes that are not be tried before the same Court such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, etc.15 The ICC was envisioned to be the ultimate adjudicator and preserve of international criminal justice in the new era, however, this mandate poses the threat to dilute the supremacy of this Court.
While adding confusion to whether cases should be adjudicated before the ICC or the ACJHR, the mandates under the Malabo Protocol, are filled with incompatibilities with the Rome Statute by the virtue of the international legal system. This section of the comment compartmentalizes the deliberation upon the incompatibilities of the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocols into three subsections. The first subsection focuses on how the two acts are in a potential conundrum with international treaty law. The second subsection specifies the inconsistencies between the two acts by virtue of the principle of complementarity. Furthermore, the third subsection highlights how the similarities between the two multilateral treaties are in incongruence with other international human rights conventions. And the final subsection intensifies the concern of how enforcing the Malabo Protocols may conclude in infringement of the principles of international law.
It can be strongly opined that the two multilateral treaties, that is the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocol, are discordant with one another owing to their provisional obligations, by reason of the law of termination and validity of treaties as iterated in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna Convention). According to the customary character of Article 59 of the Vienna Convention, in case the two multilateral treaties are premised on the “same subject matter”, they are considered to be incompatible with one another.16 As Jacky Fung Wai Nam points out, upon strict interpretation of the treaties, the subject matter is held to be identical if, (i) their objective is the same and (ii) they present a similar degree of generality.17 The language and the statutory interpretation of Article 59 of the Vienna Convention make it amply clear that because the judicial obligations stemming from the Preambles of both the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocol between the ICC and the ACJHR overlap, the two are said to be incompatible.
To illustrate further, paragraph 5 and paragraph 16 of the Preamble of the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocol respectively, emphasize the objective of the two international judicial institutions to put an end to impunity and deter the occurrence of atrocious crimes and gross violations of human rights.18 Similarly, paragraph 7 of the Preamble of the Rome Statute has been replicated in paragraph 10 of the Preamble of the Malabo Protocol which accentuates the importance of human life and the need to abstain from the use of force.19 Therefore, the terms of the objective between the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocol are the same and the subject matter as discussed above is of a similar degree of generality. This could inherently mean that both ICC and the ACJHR may result in initiating investigations and prosecuting the same perpetrator for the commission of the same crime in a given jurisdiction. Eventually, raising inevitable apprehensions amongst the State parties regarding which judicial institution has superior jurisdiction and adjudicatory powers.20 Thereby, significantly impacting the jurisdiction while posing a serious threat to the functionality of the ICC.
The African Union Assembly finds the Malabo Protocol to be a better alternative to end impunity and counter human rights violations, regionally and internationally through the principle of complementarity, but the inspiration behind the same is drawn from the verbatim interpretation of the same principle prescribed under the Rome Statute. Even though the subjectivity of Article 46A (2) of the Malabo Protocol21 on the principle of complementarity reflects the same subjectivity as that of the Rome Statute under Article 17,22 there is a minuscule alteration in the former’s admissibility criteria: the absence of the term genuinely.23 This means that the standard of admissibility is relaxed with lesser requirements of burden of proof, unlike Article 17 of the Rome Statute.24
On the same note, it is necessary to point out the possibility of legal fragmentation of the customary international law and international criminal law regarding the law involving immunities to Heads of State and other senior officials. From the plain reading of the text of Article 46A bis of the Malabo Protocol,25 it can be asserted that it fails to recognize the type(s) of immunities that it is willing to offer. It is predicted that this rule offers only immunity to ratione personae (immunities based on their roles for the State government) despite not differentiating between Heads of State and other senior officials, which means that the Malabo Protocol can provide a defense to those unrecognized individuals who receive no such sovereign protection under the broader international law governing immunities.26 Thus, in an attempt to protect the State leaders and officials of sub-Saharan African States, the Malabo Protocol has drifted away from the general interpretation of immunities that “immunity of state officials is no longer a valid defense for the commission of international crimes”27 as envisioned under the international law and by the ICC. It can be seen that the ambiguous tone of Article 46A bis on account of legal fragmentation, lives while catering to the grey area between the law surrounding the law of immunities.28
The next set of incompatibilities between the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocol eclipse the violations of the non-reciprocal obligations of human rights treaties under the international legal system.29 From the ruling of the International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion on the Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,30 it can be deduced that ratifying States of human rights treaties cannot be said to have individualistic interests as it may defeat the higher purpose of raison d’être of such conventions.31 Unlike commercial treaties, international criminal justice and human rights treaties such as the Rome Statute and the Malabo Protocol cannot be premised on the role of safeguarding the reciprocal interests of other States.32 However, if both these treaties are effective then it would be against the goal of humanization of legal obligations towards the greater good of the community and be classified as a deviation from non-reciprocal obligations of human rights treaties.33 Consequentially, contrary to the objective of the Rome Statute this also purports the danger of forum shopping by State parties. If the Malabo Protocol is adopted, every State will have not one but at least three different adjudicatory fora to conduct criminal trials: the domestic court of the State party, the ACJHR, and the ICC. Subsequently, the drafters of the Rome Statute, intended to avoid all possibilities of forum shopping, however, with the advent of the Malabo Protocols, these protections will be in jeopardy.34
Lastly, as per general principles of international law, once a State has ratified a specific treaty then it is not permitted to ratify another treaty that has conflicting treaty obligations with the previous treaty.35 Thereby, the sub-Saharan African States that have contracted themselves with treaty obligations of the Rome Statute should not contract themselves with the Malabo Protocol which shares similar treaty objectives, purpose, and obligations as the Rome Statute. To further substantiate, even though this rule does not indicate that a State cannot freely consent to another treaty because it is stained with illegality, the latter treaty does not naturally become invalid, thereby allowing it to continue to co-exist with other international treaties.36 On the basis of this, the Malabo Protocol unfortunately cannot be labeled as an invalid treaty. As a result of which, States can continue to consent to the Malabo Protocol despite being in breach of their treaty obligations under the Rome Statute and consequently disabling the functionality of the ICC. To make matters worse, the language of Article 127 of the Rome Statute, grants the ratified State parties to withdraw from their treaty obligations owed under the Rome Statute, thereby stripping the ICC of any scope of its jurisdictional supremacy in sub-Saharan Africa.37
It is essential to point out that even though the Malabo Protocol poses a danger to the dysfunctionality and overall impact of the ICC, it bears no conformity on the same as there is no assurance that the ratification of all the thirty-two African States to the Malabo Protocol will subsequently result in withdrawal from the Rome Statute.38 On the contrary, because the subject matter of the Malabo Protocol imitates that of the Rome Statute, there are greater possibilities that as per the international norms discussed above it may never constructively operate. On a similar note, with the intent of ensuring the greater good for humanity and the international community over individualistic interests between States, the principles of non-reciprocal obligations of the human rights convention may discourage all sub-Saharan African States from withdrawing their obligations from the Rome Statute while swearing their homage with the Malabo Protocol.
While it is consoling that the functionality of the ICC is not in complete shambles, it may also worth mentioning that it is not logistically feasible for the African Union Assembly to set the seal on the Malabo Protocol without the assistance of the OTP and the ICC. As per the records, the ACJHR is expected to require a judicial body of nearly sixteen judges nominated and elected by the African Union Assembly while keeping in mind the gender and geographical demographics of the consortium. The same may be difficult to execute because the African Union Assembly is at risk of spreading its human resources thinly as it is also responsible for the managerial and administrative assistance to the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR). The narrative, African solutions to African problems may not be successful owing to the lack of human resources as well as budgetary constraints.39 Henceforth, it is fair to confer that the legacy of regional judicial institutions in Africa has been of an over-commitment and under-delivery.40
Between the hope that the Malabo Protocol will not result in the dysfunctionality of the ICC and the doubt pertaining to the possibility of ACJHR superseding in prosecuting any international crime in the sub-Saharan African region, lies the duty of the OTP. Given the concerns, it is indeed complex to predict the likelihood of integrating the ACJHR with the complementarity structures of the ICC. Notwithstanding this, one effective and purposeful way of achieving this is to hold open conversations between the political and judicial institutions and the ICC. Moreso, another pragmatic solution would be for the two judicial fora to sign and conclude a contractual agreement regarding the principle of complementarity to collaboratively fight against impunity.41
By stating the above mentioned, it can be concluded that the territorial and subject-matter jurisdiction vested with the ICC would indeed be affected by the introduction of the new provisions laid down under the Malabo Protocol. Not only does ICC needs to enhance its control over the principle of complementarity over regional judicial institutions but these regional judicial institutions in Africa also need to harmoniously work with the ICC to bring about greater benefits toward international peace and justice. By cooperatively collaborating with the African regional institutions, the ICC can efficaciously (re)think and (re)instate the position for rule of law by fostering a more stable legal environment that would preserve peace and restore principles of international justice in the larger socio-legal-political context.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Amnesty International, Malabo Protocol: Legal and Institutional Implication of the Merged and Expanded African Court 1, 1–34 (2016) [hereinafter Malabo Protocol], available online. ↩
Laurence R. Helfer & Anne E. Showalter, Opposing International Justice: Kenya’s Integrated Backlash Strategy Against the ICC, 17 Int’l Crim. L. Rev. 2, 27 (2017), available online. ↩
Eamon Aloyo, Geoff Dancy & Yvonne Dutton, Allegations of Bias of the International Criminal Court Against Africa: What Do Kenyans Believe?, Leiden Sec. Global Aff. Blog (Jan. 20, 2020), available online. ↩
Kamari Maxine Clarke, Is the ICC Targeting Africa Inappropriately or Are There Sound Reasons and Justifications for Why All of the Situations Currently Under Investigation or Prosecution Happen to Be in Africa?, ICC Forum (Mar. 17, 2013), available online. ↩
Helfer & Showalter, supra note 2. ↩
Jos van Doorne, The Rome Statute and Malabo Protocol: Complementarity’s Creation of a Fragmented World (Aug. 2019) (Master’s thesis, Tilburg University), available online. ↩
Chile Eboe-Osuji, Administering International Criminal Justice through the African Court: Opportunities and Challenges in International Law, in The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Developments and Challenges 841 (Charles Chernor Jalloh, Kamari Maxine Clarke & Vincent Obisienunwo Orlu Nmehielle eds., 2019), available online, doi. ↩
Justine Tillier, The ICC Prosecutor and Positive Complementarity: Strengthening the Rule of Law?, 13 Int’l Crim. L. Rev. 507, 510 (2013), paywall, doi. ↩
Matthew Fay, Positive Complementarity: How to Fix a Failed ICC, 1123 Seton Hall Stud. Scholarship 1, 4 (2021), available online. ↩
Katharine A. Marshall, Prevention and Complementarity in the International Criminal Court: A Positive Approach, 17 Hum. Rts. Br. 21, 22 (2010), available online; Emeric Rogier, The Ethos of “Positive Complementarity”, EJIL Talk (Dec. 11, 2018), available online. ↩
Tom Ginsburg, Book Review, 115 Am. J. Int’l L. 777 (Oct. 2021), available online
(reviewing James Thuo Gathii ed., The Performance of Africa’s International Courts: Using Litigation for Political, Legal, and Social Change (2020), paywall). ↩
Amaya Úbeda de Torres, Freedom of Expression under the European Convention on Human Rights: A Comparison with the Inter-American System of Protection of Human Rights, 10 Hum. Rts. Br. 6 (2003), available online. ↩
Andreas Follesdal, Exporting the Margin of Appreciation: Lessons for the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 15 ICON 359, 364 (Apr. 2017), available online, doi. ↩
Malabo Protocol Report, supra note 1, at 5. ↩
Stuart Ford, Between Hope and Doubt: The Malabo Protocol and the Resource Requirements of an African Criminal Court, in The African Court of Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Developments and Challenges 1076 (Charles Chernor Jalloh, Kamari Maxine Clarke & Vincent Obisienunwo Orlu Nmehielle eds., 2019), available online, doi. ↩
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 59, May 23, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, available online, archived. ↩
Jacky Fung Wai Nam, Jurisdictional Conflicts Between the ICC and the African Union—Solution to the Dilemma, 44 Denv. J. Int’l L. & Pol’y 41, 45 (Jan. 2015), available online. ↩
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, Preamble (2014) [hereinafter Malabo Protocol], available online. ↩
Id. at Preamble. ↩
Fung Wai Nam, supra note 17, at 46. ↩
Malabo Protocol, supra note 18, at Art. 46A(2). ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 17, available online. ↩
van Doorne, supra note 6, at 42. ↩
Id. at 43. ↩
Malabo Protocol, supra note 18, at Art. 46A bis. ↩
van Doorne, supra note 6, at 46. ↩
Id. ↩
Malabo Protocol, supra note 18, at Art. 46A bis. ↩
Fung Wai Nam, supra note 17, at 50. ↩
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, 1951 I.C.J. Rep. 23 (May 28, 1951). ↩
Id. at 10. ↩
Fung Wai Nam, supra note 17, at 50. ↩
Id. at 51. ↩
Fung Wai Nam, supra note 17, at 50–52. ↩
El Salvador v. Nicaragua, Judgment, 11 Am. J. Int’l L. 674 (Central American Court of Justice 1917), available online. ↩
Fung Wai Nam, supra note 17, at 49. ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 22, at Art. 127. ↩
Fung Wai Nam, supra note 17, at 54. ↩
Serekebrhan Fiquremariam, African Solutions to African Problems, ISS (Sep. 18, 2008), available online. ↩
Ford, supra note 15, at 1080. ↩
Philomena Apiko & Faten Aggad, The International Criminal Court, Africa and the African Union: What Way Forward?, 201 ECDPM 1, 42 (Nov. 11, 2016), available online. ↩
Promotion of Universal Jurisdiction: With Experts One-to-One
Introduction
This comment discusses how to promote universal jurisdiction. By arguing for the importance of universal jurisdiction and comparing different situations faced by countries, this comment discusses problems we face when introducing universal jurisdiction to the world. In China, for example, an important principle in criminal law is “No crime without law making it so; no penalty without law making it so.” This principal will be challenged when facing universal jurisdiction as many of the crimes regulated in the international conventions are not regulated in the same way in Chinese criminal law. That leads to an inevitable conflict with the principle of prohibition of presumption when applying the principle of universal jurisdiction. This could be one of the important practical reasons that keeps countries like China from accepting universal jurisdiction.
To introduce a new concept to countries that are not familiar with it, it is vital to make things as clear as possible. It is understandable that countries will have resistance and fear when faced with a powerful weapon like universal jurisdiction. They may be afraid that it will infringe their national sovereignty. Perhaps sending experts from the ICC will create an opportunity for countries to hear about this new concept and negotiate details of it. With the ICC experts’ expertise and experience, clear and well-defined laws are likely to be drafted and adopted.
However, being cautious in promoting universal jurisdiction is also very important. Compared to its original goal of serving to end impunity, universal jurisdiction does risk generating an unrealistic hope or being used as a political tool rather than one for justice.
I. Importance of Universal Jurisdiction
Universal jurisdiction is the most controversial form of jurisdiction in the field of international law. The principle of universal jurisdiction holds that international law considers certain acts to be so egregious that the nature of the crime itself engenders jurisdiction by any state irrespective of territorial or national links to the crime.1 Supporters of universal jurisdiction believe that it can be a powerful weapon to end impunity and stop serious crimes such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
Rapid changes in the world call for universal jurisdiction. With the accelerating pace of economic globalization, the emergence of many global public problems, that no single country is capable of solving alone, requires close international cooperation across borders.
In addition to economic globalization, the world also faces challenges that require an appropriate method to solve. The increasing prevalence of international terrorism in the 21st century has further highlighted the urgency of the practice of universal jurisdiction. Some extremist organizations and their affiliated groups continue to pose a significant and evolving threat worldwide. For example, in 2015, a suicide bomber attack was organized in four Shia mosques in Sanaa, killing 140 and wounding more than 350. Later, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility for that attack. In the economic sphere, another problem: illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing (IUU) is a huge threat to global ocean safety. According to a report of the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization, IUU activity causes the loss of twenty-six million tons of seafood worth up to $23 billion annually. This largely affects the tangible benefits of the fishing population, which represents 12% of the global population.2 Solving these types of problems by promoting the concept of universal jurisdiction, both to combat serious criminal crimes and to combat serious economic damage behaviors, is an important and serious topic facing society today.
II. The Problem We Are Facing
Some parties are very resistant to the International Criminal Court (ICC) as well as universal jurisdiction. After studying cases and doing research, I think there are two main reasons that cause this resistance.
Politics is the first concern of many parties. This conflict is most evident when an external tribunal seeks to hold the head of state, or other high-ranking official, accountable for international crimes. In such cases, there is a loss of sovereignty when a country’s citizens are placed under the criminal jurisdiction of someone else. Take the African Union (AU) as an example. When a Spanish investigative judge issued arrest warrants for current or former Rwandan officials, such arrest warrants was regard as part of “legal campaign” against the AU. In July 2008, the AU Assembly declared that:
Besides, the AU has called for the mass withdrawal of member states from the ICC. However, the resolution is non-binding, with Nigeria and Senegal opposing a withdrawal.4 South Africa and Burundi have already decided to withdraw, accusing the ICC of undermining their sovereignty and unfairly targeting Africans.
Practicalities form the second concern. Since World War II, many states have incorporated universal jurisdiction into their domestic legal frameworks in order to prevent the recurrence of horrific atrocities. Among them, Spain and Belgium are considered to be at the forefront of the expansion of universal jurisdiction.5 After the restriction of the application of universal jurisdiction in Belgium in 2003, Spain became the country with “the most liberal universal jurisdiction statute in the world” and “exercised universal jurisdiction more extensively than any other country,”6 taking up a large number of cases involving alleged serious international crimes. However, it was also the overly broad and general nature of Spain’s early legislation on universal jurisdiction that led to many serious problems in its judicial practice and repeated controversies. In 1998, the United Kingdom temporarily detained Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte, a former Chilean president and lifelong senator. The arrest warrant was issued in response to a request for extradition from Spain, which caused a global outcry. The Spanish High Court of Justice was suddenly transformed from a “nobody” to the center of the world’s attention.7 Some scholars have pointed out that, with the increasing number of universal jurisdiction cases in Spain, opposition to such proceedings and political pressure have increased.8 For example, the governments of the United States, Rwanda, and Israel all have protested the relevant decisions of the Spanish courts; some scholars have argued that Spanish legislation and practice have proven that absolute universal jurisdiction is not politically viable; and others have discussed the disadvantages of universal jurisdiction in Spain in terms of judicial inefficiency, the paucity of practical results, and the negative diplomatic, economic, and political implications. The disadvantages of universal jurisdiction in Spain have been described in terms of inefficient justice, few practical results, and negative diplomatic, economic, and political implications.9
China is another country concerned by the practicalities of universal jurisdiction. There is an important principle against presumption in Chinese criminal law, which means that “No crime without law making it so; no penalty without law making it so.” Many of the crimes in the international conventions to which China is a party are not regulated, or not regulated in the same way in Chinese criminal law, which leads to the inevitable conflict with the principle of prohibition of presumption when applying the principle of universal jurisdiction. If there is a presumption of crimes, there would be a presumption of specific penalties. This is in conflict with the principle of “no crime without law” in Article 3 of Chinese criminal law. For example, crimes against humanity in the sense of the Rome Statute are punishable as homicide or other crimes against public security in China, and the general elements of crimes against humanity require “widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population”10 whereas the crimes of intentional homicide and dangerous methods in Chinese criminal law subdivision would be punishable as crimes against humanity under the Rome Statute. Neither intentional homicide nor crimes against public safety by dangerous means can cover such elements of crimes against humanity in the Rome Statute. Besides, although China has acceded to many international conventions, these international conventions all have one common feature: namely, they do not provide for the issue of penalties. If a crime’s penalty is neither regulated in international conventions nor in Chinese criminal law, there will be a presumption of penalty which is against an important principle of Chinese criminal law. This makes it impossible to carry out conviction and sentencing. From this point of view, it can be said that China has not yet solved the problem of application of the principle of universal jurisdiction.
III. To Solve the Problem
As we all know, when something is vague and unfamiliar, it is less likely to be accepted. But when it becomes clearer, people’s resistance and fear of it will reduce. Universal jurisdiction is a powerful weapon to fight against crime, but it is so powerful that many countries will be afraid that it will infringe upon their national sovereignty.
To solve this problem, the ICC should send experts with legislative experience to countries who have no regulations about universal jurisdiction to help them draft relevant regulations. By being in the local environment, experts will be better able to understand the local people and communicate with the local government to produce effective results. With their expertise and experience, clear and well-defined laws are likely to be drafted and adopted.
A. Defining the Concept of Universal Jurisdiction
Although universal jurisdiction has been discussed frequently in recent years due to an increase in its use, at the legal level, the existing international conventions do not provide a clear definition of universal jurisdiction, and the provisions and application of universal jurisdiction in the domestic legislation and judicial practice of each country are also different.
There must be a clear definition of universal jurisdiction in regulation. It is generally accepted that there is a distinction between universal jurisdiction in a broad sense and in a narrow sense. Universal jurisdiction in the broad sense, also known as absolute universal jurisdiction, refers to criminal jurisdiction that applies solely based on the nature of the crime, without regard to whether there is any other connection between the place of commission of the crime, the nationality of the perpetrator or the victim(s), or the State exercising jurisdiction. Universal jurisdiction in the narrow sense, also known as limited universal jurisdiction, means that the exercise of universal jurisdiction is subject to factors other than the nature of the crime, such as the requirement that the State exercising universal jurisdiction obtain physical control over the perpetrator of the crime. It was noted in the Seventeenth Commission of Justitia et Pace Institute of International Law that “the competence of a State to prosecute alleged offenders and to punish them if convicted, irrespective of the place of commission of the crime and regardless of any link of active or passive nationality, or other grounds of jurisdiction recognized by international law,” but it also suggests that the exercise of universal jurisdiction required the State to acquire physical control over the perpetrator and emphasized the primacy of the jurisdiction of the State where the crime was committed and the State of the nationality of the perpetrator.11
If the ICC can send experts to countries who are willing to draft regulations about universal jurisdiction, those experts can help countries choose what approach to universal jurisdiction is suitable for them. Surely, the absolute universal jurisdiction in a broad sense is more comprehensive and effective, but it may not be acceptable to all countries. If some countries can accept universal jurisdiction in a narrow sense, it is clearly better than no universal jurisdiction at all. By negotiating with local governments, experts from the ICC can help them discover a suitable solution to this problem.
B. Defining Crimes That Can Apply to Universal Jurisdiction
Generally, universal jurisdiction may be exercised over international crimes, identified by international law as falling within that jurisdiction, in matters such as genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crime of aggression. The Rome Statute specifies four crimes that are within the jurisdiction of the ICC, and those crimes have generally been recognized as crimes of general concern to the entire international community. There is still a question whether states can accept all the definitions of crimes in the Rome Statute. Experts from the ICC can help draft local regulations on the basis of the Rome Statute while communicating and consulting with local government and the public on relevant problems.
C. Defining Preconditions of Applying Universal Jurisdiction
The first precondition of applying universal jurisdiction should be subsidiarity, which means that a case should be investigated or prosecuted by a State which has jurisdiction over it, unless the State is genuinely unwilling or unable to carry out the investigation or prosecution. Because universal jurisdiction is a complementary jurisdiction, it means that (1) the jurisdiction of the international court takes precedence. Once an international court decides to intervene in a case, the State should transfer the case to that court; (2) the jurisdiction of the State where the crime was committed or the State of nationality of the perpetrator takes precedence. Thus, when States initiate universal jurisdiction, they do so only if the State where the crime was committed or the State of nationality of the crime or even the State of nationality of the victim is not able or willing to exercise “primary” jurisdiction.
Once the relevant state has intervened or is prepared to intervene in the exercise of jurisdiction, universal jurisdiction cannot be triggered. For example, in a decision in 2000, the Spanish National High Criminal Court found that it should not have intervened in the Guatemala case to exercise universal jurisdiction because there were indications that Guatemala was about to launch an investigation into the crimes in question. The Spanish Constitutional Court, in the Guatemala case in 2005, even more explicitly ruled that the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, and the court located where the crime was committed, took precedence over Spain’s exercise of universal jurisdiction. However, the Spanish courts may exercise jurisdiction if the parties can show that the place where the crime was committed is unable or unwilling to exercise jurisdiction.12
The second precondition of applying universal jurisdiction should be “presence.” Universal jurisdiction can only be exercised by a State when the suspect is present, or likely to be present, in the State. This precondition can extend to situations where the suspect is anticipated to be present. The reason for this extended application is that, in many cases, it often takes time from the formal initiation of the charging process to the issuance of an arrest warrant against a suspect. If the suspect is only in transit, or in the country for a short period of time, it is often difficult to complete effective proceedings in a given period of time until he or she enters the country to start criminal proceedings. Before the warrant is issued, the suspect may have already been tipped off and fled from the country, thus rendering the entire previously initiated procedure ineffective. It is precisely to prevent this that it is possible to pre-activate the procedure by determining the imminent entry of a suspect based on an itinerary, or on other information obtained in advance, and to make an arrest on the basis of a warrant issued once entry has been made, and then to proceed to formal criminal charges.
The third precondition of applying universal jurisdiction should be “minimum link.” After the restrictions imposed by Belgium and Spain on the mechanisms and conditions for the exercise of their universal jurisdiction, most Western European States no longer exercise universal jurisdiction in the “absolute” way. In contrast, in most cases, the activation of a national universal jurisdiction mechanism is required only when there is some element of connection or a direct link to the case in question.
IV. Promoting Universal Jurisdiction Cautiously
Unlike other principles, the purpose of a state exercising criminal jurisdiction over a crime in accordance with the principle of universal jurisdiction is not to protect the interests of the state or its citizens, but rather to protect the common interests of the international community. In order to effectively combat international crimes, the principle of universal jurisdiction authorizes a state to prosecute and try suspects of an international crime under its criminal law when the suspects are present in its territory, regardless of whether the crimes committed have a link to the state. If the state decides not to exercise criminal jurisdiction, it is obliged to extradite the suspects to any other state that has jurisdiction over them, and not to let them go unpunished. Universal jurisdiction is such a powerful weapon that we should use it cautiously. Since 2009, the Sixth Committee of the U.N. General Assembly has been organizing discussions among states on the scope and application of the principle of universal jurisdiction. However, after many years of discussion, States still cannot agree on the concept of universal jurisdiction, the conditions for its application, and the crimes to which it applies.
When selecting countries to promote universal jurisdiction, one thing that must be considered is a country’s level of economic development. For some developed countries, defending human rights and upholding justice may be one of their most important goals. However, developing countries may focus on other priorities. They may be more concerned about abusing universal jurisdiction. There is an old saying in China—“达则兼济天下,穷则独善其身”—which says that if someone is wealthy, he should go out and help everyone else in world, but if someone is poor, he should focus on his own situation and try to help himself. Some African countries are too busy dealing with the basic problems of survival—war, disease, and hunger—to care about the exercise of universal jurisdiction.
The principle of universal jurisdiction is not intended to create an obligation for a small number of countries that have greater capacity to have greater responsibility, but, rather, to give states the right to exercise jurisdiction over serious international crimes. In a situation where it is difficult to investigate and obtain evidence, or even where there is a lack of physical control over the perpetrators, the unrestricted exercise of universal jurisdiction in the name of justice has the possibility of creating unrealistic hope and fostering an illusion of justice, rather than actually ending impunity. Without caution in its exercise, universal jurisdiction could be reduced to a declaration, slogan, or a political tool.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Stephen Macedo ed., The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction, Principle 1 (May 2001), available online. ↩
Joseph Christensen, Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing in Historical Perspective, in Perspectives on Oceans Past (Kathleen Schwerdtner Máñez & Bo Poulsen eds., May 2016), paywall, doi. ↩
Karinne Coombes, Universal Jurisdiction: A Means to End Impunity or A Threat to Friendly International Relations, 43 The Geo. Wash. Int’l L. Rev. 419, 442 (2012), available online. ↩
African Union Backs Mass Withdrawal From ICC, BBC News, Feb. 1, 2017, available online. ↩
Morten Bergsmo, Complementarity and the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction for Core International Crimes (2010), available online. ↩
Zachary Mills, Does the World Need Knights Errant to Combat Enemies of All Mankind? Universal Jurisdiction, Connecting Links, and Civil Liability, 66 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 1315 (2009), available online. ↩
Wolfgang Kaleck, From Pinochet to Rumsfeld: Universal Jurisdiction in Europe 1998–2008, 30 Mich. J. Int’l L. 927 (2009), available online. ↩
Claudia Jiménez Cortés, ICIP, Combating Impunity for International Crimes in Spain: From the Prosecution of Pinochet to the Indictment of Garzón (May 1, 2011), available online, doi. ↩
Ignacio de la Rasilla del Moral, The Swan Song of Universal Jurisdiction in Spain, 9 Int’l Crim. L. Rev. 777, 808 (Jul. 15, 2009), available online, doi. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9 [hereinafter Rome Statute], Art. 7, available online. ↩
Institute of International Law, Resolution on Universal Criminal Jurisdiction With Regard to the Crime of Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes (Aug. 26, 2005), available online. ↩
Nehal Bhuta, Arthur Helton Fellow & Jrgen Schurr, HRW, Universal Jurisdiction in Europe: The State of the Art (Jun. 27, 2006), available online. ↩
How TikTok Can Save the World—Regional Organizations’ Role in Joining Social Movements to Ensure Compliance With International Law
In this comment, I argue that the role of regional organizations in Africa can aid in implementing the principle of complementarity by aligning themselves with social movements that create a culture of domestic prosecution and pressure States to exercise jurisdiction over mass atrocities. In Part I, I define complementarity, describe its importance and explain why complementarity is not being implemented effectively in Africa. Specifically, I demonstrate that multiple African nations have relied on the International Criminal Court (ICC) to step in and handle prosecutions rather than engaging in domestic prosecutions for mass atrocities. In Part II, I describe what regional organizations are, how regional organizations in Africa have been ineffective at implementing complementarity, and suggest regional organizations use social media to create a culture of domestic prosecutions in Africa.
I. Complementarity and Its Failure in African Nations
A. What Is the Principle of Complementarity?
Complementarity is one of the main governing principles upon which the operation of the ICC is premised.1 The basic idea is that when a mass atrocity occurs, even one that is bad enough to fall within the jurisdiction of the ICC, it is the States’ responsibility to investigate, prosecute and/or punish the bad actors. This is because States, under the complementarity principle, have the “primary right and responsibility to investigate and prosecute”2 and to take the “first bite at the prosecutorial apple.”3 This is because States are typically physically closer to the crimes compared to the ICC and, in theory should have a larger stake in the outcome of investigations and prosecutions of perpetrators of mass atrocities that occur in their jurisdiction. Thus, under complementarity, it is only after the State fails to take action against wrongdoers that the ICC is supposed to step in to prosecute the perpetrators. Essentially, complementarity makes the ICC the “court of last resort.”4
Complementarity is not merely a theoretical principle guiding the ICC in the abstract. Rather, it appears throughout the Rome Statute. The Preamble and Article 1 states the ICC “shall be complementary to national criminal jurisdictions.”5 Complementarity is further expressed through rules on when and how cases may come before the ICC. Article 17 says the ICC may only step in if:
Article 18 says that the:
B. Why Does Complementarity Matter?
Complementarity is crucial to the success of the ICC’s express goal of ending impunity and domesticating international law. On a practical level, the ICC has limited resources.8 As such the ICC is only able to take on certain kinds of cases. They may only investigate and prosecute higher level criminals.9 This limited reach means that the ICC is only able to investigate a limited number of cases. If there is any hope for the vast number of perpetrators outside the ICC’s reach to be held accountable for their crimes, domestic courts will have to pick up the slack. Further, since domestic courts are physically closer to the criminals, the crimes, and the victims, they do not have to expend the resources required to travel back and forth to effectively conduct investigations. So, domestic courts should be more efficient than the ICC at handling investigations and prosecutions. But complementarity goes a step further than simply making logical sense. It also encourages states to comply with the Rome Statute by seeking to strike “a balance between state sovereignty and the international community’s interest”10 in prosecuting international crimes. Thus, complementarity helps to “foster the domestication of international law”11 while also respecting States’ jurisdictional rights and sovereignty.
C. Has Complementarity Failed in Africa?
Despite the undoubted importance of complementarity, some critics worry it has failed to be exercised effectively, particularly in African nations. To understand why, it is important to consider what it actually means for complementarity to succeed. According to former Prosecutor of the ICC Luis Moreno-Ocampo:
In other words, the principle of complementarity in the ICC is functioning properly when domestic courts are actually prosecuting the perpetrators of mass atrocities, rather than relying on the ICC to handle those investigations, effectuate those arrests, and ultimately carry out those prosecutions.
Given this understanding of what it means for complementarity to succeed, there is some evidence that complementarity is falling short of the mark in Africa. In her paper on compliance in the ICC, Tatiana Sainati cites ICC investigations in Uganda and Sudan as examples showing that the principle of complementarity is ineffective.13 According to Sainati, rather than initiating investigations or prosecutions of international crimes, both Uganda and Sudan instead chose to “outsource the responsibility for investigations and prosecutions to the ICC.”14 Because these nations essentially relieved themselves of the pressure of prosecuting crimes under the Rome Statute, the aforementioned goals behind complementarity, like domesticating international law or granting states their rights and responsibilities of primacy in jurisdiction, cannot be realized.
This failure was not contained to just Sudan or Uganda. Another very public example of failed complementarity in Africa occurred in connection with the 2007 post-election violence in Kenya. Following an election wherein both incumbent President Mwai Kibaki and his challenger Raila Odinga claimed victory, large-scale ethnically driven violence erupted in Kenya.15 Within two months, as many as 1220 Kenyans were killed, over 3560 injured, about 350,000 were displaced, and more than 900 acts of rape were documented.16 Under the principle of complementarity, the local Kenyan judiciary should have investigated those responsible for these atrocities and where necessary, arrested and tried the perpetrators. Instead, Kenyan lawmakers continuously rejected a recommendation to create a tribunal to prosecute those responsible for the post-election violence.17 And in spite of the fact that the Kenyan government claimed that reforms would shortly lead to domestic prosecution of the criminals connected to the post-election violence,18 the ICC ultimately issued summonses for six Kenyans (the Ocampo six as they came to be known) to appear before the Court,19 noting that the Kenyan government had failed to show that they had launched any investigations of the Ocampo Six.
To add salt to the wound that was Kenya’s perceived failure to investigate the mass violence, a number of local organizations preferred ICC intervention over domestic prosecution. In 2010, Christine Bjork and Juanita Goebertus interviewed local civil society organizations in Kenya and got a sense of how these organizations viewed the Kenyan government. They asked these organizations whether they trusted Kenya’s local judiciaries to investigate and prosecute those responsible for the post-election violence.20 The answer was an affirmative no across the board. One local non-government organization (NGO) screened a documentary which promoted the idea that the ICC, rather than the local Kenyan government, was the main option to achieve justice for victims in Kenya.21 Another NGO decided to work with local communities to educate people about the ICC’s functions. They also created a consensus about the importance of ICC intervention, citing a preference for the ICC’s intervention over domestic accountability as a result of their distrust of the Kenyan government.22 Another NGO interviewed by Bjork and Goebertus expressed their belief that the only hope for justice for the victims of the post-election violence was ICC intervention.23
Altogether, this demonstrates a failure of complementarity. A mass atrocity occurred. Hundreds of thousands of people and their families were attacked, violated, and murdered. And not only did the Kenyan government not step in to bring justice to these victims, but many of the community leaders didn’t even believe that domestic justice was possible.
II. Regional Organizations as a Potential Solution to the Failure
One potential solution to the failure of complementarity in Africa is to rely on regional organizations. Specifically, the African Court on Human right or the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) may be in a better position than the ICC to promote complementarity. Given their proximity to countries, they may be able to encourage States to rely on domestic courts rather than outsourcing to the ICC.
A. What are Regional Organizations?
Regional organizations are local supranational institutions who, like the ICC, work to stop mass atrocity.24 They include regional human rights commissions and courts in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. These regional institutions are the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the ACHPR, and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights.
B. What Impact May Regional Organizations Have on States?
In their paper, James L. Cavallaro and Jamie O’Connell detail the impressive impact regional organizations have in helping to end impunity and address violations of human rights. This includes:
Domestic actors, like these regional organizations, have more success in carrying out the ICC’s goals of ending impunity and domesticating international law for a number of reasons. First, they are closer in proximity to the States, making them “better equipped than the ICC […] to contribute to complex and intertwined processes of strengthening the rule of law.”26 This is because the ICC is “located far from the places in which it operates and is staffed primarily by foreigners.”27 Second, in helping to promote domestic rather than international justice, regional organizations are:
Finally a domestic organizations’ “bottom-up” approach (as compared to the ICC’s top down approach) can guarantee better results both in terms of effectiveness of the legal institutions implemented, and in terms of their legitimacy and potential for reconciliation.29
Despite their advantages and success, regional organizations are not perfect solutions to complementarity problems. Notably, regional organizations typically lack effective enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance with their rulings. As a result, they, like the ICC, are relying on the willingness of states to obey in order to effectuate any change.30 More specifically, African courts in particular face even more daunting challenges with respect to ability to positively impact their member States.
C. Regional Organizations in African Nations
The two main African regional human rights systems are the African Commission on Human Peoples’ Rights (the Commission) and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (the Court). The Commission and Court oversee Member States’ compliance mainly with the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights which entered into force in 1986.31 Fifty-four States are parties to the African Charter and all are members of the African Union, except Morocco.32 While the Commission and the Courts have different functions, they fail to contribute to human rights in similar ways. Even though the commission is responsible for evaluating individual complaints of human rights violations by State parties, States largely ignore the Commission when it finds them to have violated human rights in particular cases and recommends remedies.33 Further, while the Court is supposed to strengthen the human rights protection system in Africa, it has not yet played a significant role in preventing atrocity crimes. According to Cavallaro and O’Connell, “the Court has not issued an advisory opinion or merits decision in a contentious case that is relevant to atrocity crimes.”34
Cavallaro and O’Connell hypothesize many reasons for the failures of the Court and Commission, including:
They also argue that the Court simply lacks the necessary influence over States to ensure they will comply with their orders.36
Regardless of the reasons behind these failures, they seem to put African regional organizations in a bind with respect to their ability to make complementarity function ideally. Due to their lack of trust, resources, and legitimacy, it is difficult for African regional organizations to effectively address human rights violations and mass atrocities. As a result, when atrocities like the 2007 post-election violence occur and African regional organizations cannot step in to help, local NGOs are forced to rely on the ICC, which undermines the success of complementarity. To have an impact on complementarity, regional organizations must find a way to influence local government in States. And to do that, they must have the ability to compel States to actually launch the investigation into alleged perpetrators.
D. Why TikTok Can Help Regional Organizations to Improve the Success of Complementarity
One possible solution to the complementarity dilemma in African nations is to empower regional organizations, like the Court and the Commission to use social media platforms, like TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter to spread a message that normalizes the practice of domestic courts investigating human rights violation cases. By making atrocities public, as well as highlighting local governments’ suboptimal responses to those atrocities, these organizations can create a social movement via social media. This movement can create a culture of addressing crime, which can pressure States into doing the necessary work to make complementarity function properly.
In her paper, Tatiana E. Sainati walks through a number of theories which may explain how local compliance occurs through social movements. She argues that transnational social movements promote compliance because they provide a mechanism for pressuring states to comply and compel the states in which they advocate to “adopt the beliefs and behavioral patterns” of the larger international legal culture.37 This idea is supported by Cavallaro and O’Connell who state:
The idea that a social movement may compel State action is not just a theory. Social movements and community arrangements have proven to be extremely important to assure compliance with the law, create a culture of legality, and strengthen the rule of law. For example, by raising awareness about the apartheid regime, transnational movements pressured the U.N. Security Council to impose sanctions to end apartheid.39
Social movements have also proven to have an influence on the effectiveness of courts. This impact can be seen most clearly in comparing cases of Loayza Tamayo v. Peru and Castillo Petruzzi v. Peru.40 Both cases had similar fact patterns: victims were sentenced to lengthy imprisonment by a faceless tribunal. They also had a similar response from regional courts: The Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled in both cases that Peru had violated the victims’ rights. However, the results were drastically different. Whereas Peru complied within a month in the Loayza Tamayo case, Peru refused to comply with the judgment in the Castillo Petruzzi case. One key difference between the two was how the public viewed the cases. Loayza Tamayo’s arrest and subsequent detention engendered widespread support and attention from the media and the broader public within and beyond Peru, but there was no such support in the Castillo Petruzzi case.41 Here, the social movement made all the difference. Social movements have been able to assist in the process of interaction, interpretation, and internalization necessary to promote compliance with international principles. And when those social movements are less active, the legitimacy of the court is reduced.
If the public believes strongly enough in a cause, they will back it. Therefore, one method for regional organizations, like that in African countries, to contribute to complementarity is to use social media platforms to build public awareness of atrocities and public support for local governments to address that support.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Mohamed M. El Zeidy, The Principle of Complementarity: A New Machinery to Implement International Criminal Law, 23 Mich. J. Int’l L. 869, 870 (2002), available online. ↩
Christine Bjork & Juanita Goebertus, Complementarity in Action: The Role of Civil Society and the ICC in Rule of Law Strengthening in Kenya, 14 Yale Hum. Rts. & Dev. L.J. 205, 210 (2011), available online. ↩
Tatiana E. Sainati, Divided We Fall: How the International Criminal Court Can Promote Compliance with International Law by Working with Regional Courts, 49 Vand. J. Transnat’l L. 191, 201 (Jan. 2016), available online. ↩
Mehdi J. Hakimi, The International Criminal Court’s Afghan Dilemma: Complementarity and the Quest for Justice in Afghanistan, 60 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 315, 321–22 (2022), available online. ↩
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.183/9, as amended [hereinafter Rome Statute], Preamble, Art. 1, available online. ↩
Sainati, supra note 3, at 203
(citing Rome Statute, Art. 17). ↩
Rome Statute, supra note 5, at Art. 18. ↩
Hakimi, supra note 4, at 322. ↩
Bjork & Goebertus, supra note 2, at 211.
(“[The ICC has a] policy of prosecuting only those who are most responsible for the most serious crimes.”). ↩
Hakimi, supra note 4, at 322. ↩
Sainati, supra note 3, at 201. ↩
Bjork & Goebertus, supra note 2, at 212; quoting Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Prosecutor of the ICC, Ceremony for the Solemn Undertaking of the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (Jun. 16, 2003), available online. ↩
Sainati, supra note 3, at 206. ↩
Id. ↩
Thomas Obel Hansen, The Policy Requirement in Crimes Against Humanity: Lessons from and for the Case of Kenya, 43 Geo. Wash. Int’l L. Rev. 1, 3 (Jul. 24, 2011), available online. ↩
Charles Chernor Jalloh, Comment on ICC Decision on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Kenya, 105 Am. J. Int’l L. 540 (2011), available online. ↩
Hansen, supra note 15, at 4. ↩
Id. at 5–6. ↩
Id. at 5. ↩
Bjork & Goebertus, supra note 2, at 215–20. ↩
Id. at 217. ↩
Id. at 216–17. ↩
Bjork & Goebertus, supra note 2, at 218. ↩
James L. Cavallaro & Jamie O’Connell, When Prosecution Is Not Enough: How the International Criminal Court Can Prevent Atrocity and Advance Accountability by Emulating Regional Human Rights Institutions, 45 Yale J. Int’l L. 1, 4 (2020), available online. ↩
Id. at 32. ↩
Bjork & Goebertus, supra note 2, at 214. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 210–11. ↩
Id. at 211. ↩
Sainati, supra note 3, at 220. ↩
Cavallaro, supra note 24, at 52. ↩
Id. at 52–53. ↩
Id. at 53. ↩
Id. at 55. ↩
Id. at 54–55. ↩
Id. at 56. ↩
Sainati, supra note 3, at 214–15. ↩
Cavallaro, supra note 24, at 5. ↩
Sainati, supra note 3, at 216. ↩
Id. at 221. ↩
Id. at 221–22. ↩
Regional Organizations as Partners in Complementarity: An Exploration of the AU, ASEAN, & Arab League of States’ Roles in Implementing Complementarity
I. Introduction
Regional organizations like the African Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and the Arab League of States have the opportunity to assist the international community by implementing the principle of complementarity. Although, there are issues with each organization’s current framework; this comment will provide solutions in order for each organization to better implement complementarity.
This comment explores the current frameworks of each organization, the issues with each framework, and solutions for each organization to implement to better promote complementarity. Section II explores the African Union. Then, Section III explores the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Then, Section IV explores the Arab League of States. Finally, Section V compares each organization and contrasts the solutions explored for each of them.
II. African Union
A. The African Union’s Existing Scheme for Protection of Human Rights
The African Union (AU) emerged out of the goal to protect the states and individuals of the region from the political violence and atrocities they had been subjected to in the colonial era.1 In furtherance of that goal, in 2004, the AU merged the African Court of Justice and the African Court of Human and Peoples’ rights together.2 In 2008, the AU created the African Court of Justice and Human Rights and, in 2014, the AU formally proposed to create a regional criminal court (Malabo Protocol).3 This regional criminal court is meant to adjudicate international criminal law violations.4 It is clear that the AU is actively working towards providing better resources for prosecuting international criminals.
The Malabo Protocol is roughly modeled on the Rome Statute.5 The Malabo Protocol will become operational as it stands now, when it receives the necessary number of ratifications.6 With this ratification, the court will become the first international tribunal with jurisdiction over crimes of mass atrocity.7 The court will have the jurisdiction to try persons for the crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, the crimes of aggression, and many other transnational crimes.8 The AU foresees that the African Criminal Court and the International Criminal Court (ICC) will coexist in prosecuting international crimes.9 The African Criminal Court will also provide for corporate liability, which the ICC does not.10 Meaning, they will have the ability to open up investigations against corporations that can be found on the territory of any country that has ratified the Malabo Protocol.11
B. Issues with the African Union’s Existing Scheme
There are several issues with the Malabo Protocol, that will be enacted as is upon ratification. The primary issue is how the court will be funded.12 The cost of a single international criminal law trial far surpasses the budget for the court.13 Another issue being a lack of staff, the AU only has 1700 employees, compared to the European Union’s 33,000 employees.14 To run a court of this size, it will be necessary to have many more employees and a higher budget.
Furthermore, the protocol provides for immunity for heads of state and government, as well as high-ranking officials.15 This creates an inability for the court to deter human rights violations, as heads of government and state are common perpetrators of these violations. The inclusion of this official immunity clause will limit the court’s ability to fully investigate cases.16 This clause is very broad and will exclude far too many people from prosecution.17 Additional issues of the Malabo Protocol include: imprecise definitions of offenses and a lack of mention of the ICC.18 The protocol fails to regulate its relationship with the ICC.19
This court appears to be intended to be an alternative to the ICC.20 Hostile states will use the court as a shield against ICC jurisdiction.21 This court would be a way for hostile states to avoid ICC jurisdiction, by conducting a sham investigation that does not include heads of state or any high-ranking government officials. This could weaken the ICC if all of the AU countries pull out of the Rome Statute and ratify the Malabo Protocol instead.
C. Solutions to Improve the African Union’s Existing Scheme
In order to help better implement the principle of complementarity, the AU’s regional criminal court will need to be operational. This regional court and the ICC can coexist, as both courts have a place in adjudicating international criminal law in Africa. The courts will serve two distinct purposes: the ICC has the ability to prosecute heads of state and government officials and the African Criminal Court has the ability to prosecute corporations and other individuals perpetrating crimes of mass atrocity.
States may freely choose which court they would like to refer their situation to, if they are unable or unwilling to exercise their jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute a crime. The regional court could:
The regional court’s jurisdiction will be based on the reality of territorial conflict lines and will be more likely to limit biased investigations.23
This regional approach makes sense, because it will be met with less resistance than an international organization.
With the court being linked to the AU, this will facilitate stricter oversight and allow for proper investigations.25
Furthermore, the African Court will have the ability to prosecute corporations which are not included in the Rome Statute, or by any other international court or tribunal.26 Transnational corporations are often indirectly involved in human rights violations and they are not being held responsible.27 These companies can be held liable under the Malabo Protocol for knowledge possessed within the corporation, even when it is divided amongst corporate personnel.28
This regional criminal court will be an excellent complement for the ICC, it will not replace or circumvent ICC jurisdiction. The ICC will remain in place, investigating and prosecuting perpetrators of mass atrocities in Africa. With the assistance of the AU and African Court prosecuting lower level perpetrators and corporations, the ICC will be free to investigate high-level officials and heads of state. The assistance of the African Court is essential to bringing all perpetrators to justice, not just the worst offenders that the ICC is focusing their efforts on.
III. Association of Southeast Asian Nations
A. The ASEAN Existing Scheme for Protection of Human Rights
There is currently not an effective regional system of human rights protection in the Asia-Pacific region.29 There is also not a regional mechanism for the promotion and enforcement of fundamental human rights principles.30 Although, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has previously had two formalized courts to address significant international crimes perpetrated in the region.31 These courts were incorporated as part of the national judicial systems of the countries, Cambodia and Timor-Leste.32
The Asia-Pacific region has the lowest acceptance rate of the ICC.33 This region sees complementarity as a threat to “Asian values”.34 The ASEAN countries respect:
These countries do not want any external interference; meaning the ICC or other states.36
Furthermore, this region seeks to preserve “fraternal silence” with respect to human rights violations in other member states.37 They have consistently opposed the use of international organizations in the fight to preserve human rights.38 They believe this assistance would undermine state sovereignty and break their sacred value of non-interference.39 A reason this region may greatly resist the idea of human rights, is because this idea has been molded from western liberal values, which do not value the same ideas as these countries.40
B. Issues with the ASEAN Existing Scheme
There are many issues with the ASEAN approach to international law and human rights. So far, only two member states have ratified the Rome Statute, so it is very unlikely that any situation in this region will be referred to the ICC.41 As for the rest of the member states, they approach the ICC with hesitation.42 They fear that the ICC will be used as a political weapon against them.43 These countries despise external interference and do not want assistance from international organizations or other states.44
The value of non-interference is a major issue for the ASEAN region to overcome to expand their quality of human rights. These states refrain from criticizing other member states with regards to occurrences in these countries, even in cases of suppression of human rights.45 If a situation does not constitute a threat to regional security, the ASEAN strictly adheres to non-interference.46 The ASEAN countries also do not actively seek to promote human rights as a region.47
The ASEAN has a reluctance at the regional level to adopt an internationalized approach to issues of human rights, because they are generally seen as internal matters.48 The localized tribunals that were previously used in this region were not in the best position to address the issues of international law.49 These courts are much more vulnerable to domestic political interference than the ICC or a regional court would be.50 Although, the ASEAN countries are unlikely to accept a regional court for human rights.51
C. Solutions to Improve the ASEAN Existing Scheme
The ASEAN should provide a framework for its member states to prosecute their own human rights violations. Forming a regional court would not follow the Asian values of sovereignty and non-interference. This region values territorial integrity and fosters an environment of fraternal silence when it comes to human rights violation in a member state, so these states would not stand for the ASEAN organization intruding to investigate and prosecute crimes. Therefore, the best this organization can do for complementarity is encourage and provide resources for member states to conduct their own investigations; these resources could be both binding and non-binding.
The ASEAN has the ability to play a role in implementing complementarity in this region through a non-binding framework. This framework should look like a guide to investigating and prosecuting international criminal law violations. This guide should offer clear standards and best practices for member states to prosecute international crimes.52 This, “may offer a non-legally binding means of encouraging genuine domestic prosecutions by giving national governments guidance around which they can structure their own activities.”53 With this guidance, member states will be better equipped to take on large international criminal prosecutions. Further resources can be provided such as trainings, funding, and assistance in investigating.
The ASEAN could also assist in implementing complementarity through a binding resource, such as a charter on human rights, because some external accountability is necessary to hinder states from abusing human rights.54 This would bind member states to promote better practices in human rights. This charter should follow the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, but account for the different cultures and Asian values. Language from the U.N. declaration of Human Rights was included in the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights, but it has been ineffective.55 This commission was inaugurated in 2009, but it has been criticized for ambivalent language and its inability to protect individuals’ human rights.56 The ASEAN region needs a clear and unambiguous charter on human rights that protects individuals and groups that are commonly targeted with human rights violations.
Scholars have argued that a more optimistic approach would be to draft a regional charter based on a genuine commitment to the indivisibility of political rights, civil rights, and socio-economic rights, which are all aspects of humane development.58
IV. Arab League of States
A. The Arab League’s Existing Scheme for Protection of Human Rights
There is no mention of human rights in the original charter of the Arab League of States (The Arab League), although the main international human rights standards had not been adopted at that time.59 In 2004, the Arab League adopted a charter on human rights.60 Unlike other regional standards, the Arab League’s charter on human rights does not have an individual or collective complaint mechanism.61 The charter also lacks an enforcement mechanism.62
The Arab League has proposed an Arab Court of Human Rights that is still awaiting ratification.63 This court will be the first supranational enforcement mechanism constraining the behavior of the Islamic Arab countries.64 Scholars have argued that the establishment of this imperfect court is better than an outright rejection that leaves this region without any regional human rights enforcement mechanism.65 The Arab Court of Human Rights will have jurisdiction over all cases arising from the application of the Arab Charter on Human Rights or any other Arab treaty in the field of human rights to which the disputing states are party.66
The position of the Arab League on the ICC has largely been inconsistent. It moves from support to great resistance based on the context of the situation.67 Although, the Arab League does have several model laws based on the Rome Statute for crimes that are under the jurisdiction of the ICC.68
B. Issues with the Arab League’s Existing Scheme
The Arab Charter on Human Rights falls short in several ways. Unlike other regions, it has no mechanism for collective or individual complaints.69 This demonstrates a failure for the charter to protect individual human rights within the member states.70 Presently, the charter does not have an effective mechanism of accountability and enforcement.71 The Arab Court of Human Rights is not yet operational, therefore, there is no effective remedy for victims of international criminal law.72
The competence of the court, when it becomes operational, has also been called into question. The jurisdiction of the court will be restricted to interstate cases.73 Challenges to this jurisdiction will be examined by a single judge.74 This judge will then determine the important questions that will be at stake in preliminary objections.75 These judges will be representing their home state, rather than sitting in their own individual capacity.76 This selection of judges with immense power, breeds an environment for biases and corruption within the court.
The Arab League’s oscillating views on the ICC are also a problem. Some states have ratified the Rome Statute and accepted ICC jurisdiction, but the Arab League has reacted strongly to some of the ICC prosecutor’s investigations.77 The Arab League also has some different viewpoints on laws that are within the ICC’s jurisdiction. The model laws show that immunity for people working in their official capacity is left up to each state and the death penalty may be imposed for crimes against humanity, genocide, war crimes, and crimes of aggression.78 The Rome Statute does not permit the death penalty for any crimes.79
Another potential issue holding this region back from properly adjudicating international criminal law is the rejection of the western ideas of human rights. The western model has undoubtedly become the basis for international standards on human rights.80 The Arab League resists this because of the belief:
The Arab League may also resist the western idea of human rights because of a history of colonialism and a cautious attitude to the development of an independent regionally enforced human rights regime.82
C. Solutions to Improve the Arab League’s Existing Scheme
There are several ways for the Arab League to better implement complementarity in the region. There are some issues with the Arab Court for Human Rights that should be resolved before it is fully implemented.
The Arab League should allow non-governmental organizations to act as agents for individuals or collective groups of individuals to bring claims to the court. There are currently obstacles for the non-governmental organizations to overcome in order to bring a complaint, including requiring the state to accept this access.83 This requirement should be removed, in order for individuals that are unable to bring their own complaint to get their day in court.
Additionally, certain aspects of the court itself should be changed. Judges should sit in their own individual capacity, rather than representing their home state. Impartiality is essential to fair proceedings and single judges that are not sitting in their own capacity foster an environment of unfairness. Another issue that could be fixed, would be a longer time period for cases to be referred to the court. It is currently only a period of six months after the notification of final judgment in a domestic court.84 This is not enough time for an unsophisticated claimant to properly bring the claim to the court. With additional time and impartial judges, more claims will actually come to fruition on the docket and more victims will get to see justice.
V. Comparison of the Solutions to Improve the Schemes of the Three Regional Organizations
These three regional organizations have many cultural, political, and legal differences that require different solutions to be more effective international partners. The AU and the Arab League both have an international criminal court in the works, although, both of these courts have varying issues for why they might fail or why they are not yet operational. The ASEAN has no enforcement mechanism and observes a deafening silence when it comes to human rights. Therefore, each organization requires different solutions in order to better implement complementarity.
The issues with the AU’s court are more external, they will not be able to fully prosecute all of the perpetrators of international crimes, due to what was written in the Malabo Protocol. They will likely be successful in prosecuting corporations and transnational criminals, so to better implement complementarity, they should focus on those criminals. The Arab League’s issues are more internal, with a fear that the court itself will be biased, because of the selection process of the judges. They will have the ability to prosecute anyone, but the issues will come from inside the court itself. This requires the court itself to be fixed before they are able to truly assist in implementing complementarity. The ASEAN does not and will not have a regional court, so their issues come from a regional desire to not interfere. The only way for this organization to help implement complementarity is by providing better resources to their member nations to prosecute crimes of mass atrocity.
VI. Conclusion
Regional organizations play a great role in implementing the principle of complementarity. There are many issues that each organization faces before they will be fully operational and of any assistance to the ICC or the international community as a whole. Although, as discussed in this comment, there are solutions for the AU, ASEAN, and the Arab League to help them play a role in better implementing complementarity through regional courts and prosecutorial frameworks.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Noele Crossley, The African Union and Human Protection: Towards a Regional Protection Regime, 13 Afr. Sec. 147, 150 (2020), available online, earlier version, doi. ↩
Matiangai Sirleaf, The African Justice Cascade and the Malabo Protocol, 11 IJTJ 71, 73 (Mar. 2017), available online, doi. ↩
Id.; see also Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (2014) [hereinafter Malabo Protocol], available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Crossley, supra note 1, at 162. ↩
Gerhard Werle & Moritz Vormbaum, Creating an African Criminal Court, in The African Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Malabo Protocol 3, 5 (Gerhard Werle & Moritz Vormbaum eds., Dec. 1, 2016), available online, doi. ↩
Id. at 6. ↩
Malabo Protocol, supra note 3, at Art. 28A. ↩
Harmen van der Wilt, Complementary Jurisdiction (Article 46H), in The African Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Malabo Protocol 187, 190 (Gerhard Werle & Moritz Vormbaum eds., Dec. 1, 2016), available online, doi. ↩
Id. at 200. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 5. ↩
Id.
(noting the Charles Taylor trial cost more than $50,000,000 USD). ↩
Crossley, supra note 1, at 161. ↩
Werle & Vormbaum, supra note 6, at 5. ↩
Crossley, supra note 1, at 162. ↩
Jean-Baptiste Jeangène Vilmer, The African Union and the International Criminal Court: Counteracting the Crisis, 92 Int’l Aff. 1319, 1340 (Nov. 2016), paywall, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Werle & Vormbaum, supra note 6, at 5. ↩
Vilmer, supra note 17, at 1340. ↩
Id. ↩
Sirleaf, supra note 2, at 87. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 88. ↩
Id. ↩
Chantal Meloni, Modes of Responsibility (Article 28N), Individual Criminal Responsibility (Article 46B) and Corporate Criminal Liability (Article 46C), in The African Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Malabo Protocol 139, 152 (Gerhard Werle & Moritz Vormbaum eds., Dec. 1, 2016), available paywall, doi. ↩
See id. ↩
Id. at 141. ↩
Steven Freeland, International Criminal Justice in the Asia-Pacific Region: The Role of the International Criminal Court Treaty Regime, 11 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1029, 1035 (Dec. 2013), available online, doi. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 1039. ↩
Id. ↩
Amrita Kapur, Asian Values v. The Paper Tiger: Dismantling the Threat to Asian Values Posed by the International Criminal Court, 11 J. Int’l Crim. Just. 1059, 1060 (Dec. 2013), available online, doi. ↩
Id. at 1061. ↩
Lasse Schuldt, Southeast Asian Hesitation: ASEAN Countries and the International Criminal Court, 16 German L.J. 75, 87 (2015), available online. ↩
Id. at 88. ↩
Li-ann Thio, Implementing Human Rights in ASEAN Countries: Promises to Keep and Miles to Go Before I Sleep, 2 Yale Hum. Rts. & Dev. L.J. 1, 2 (1999), available online. ↩
Id. at 1. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 23. ↩
Schuldt, supra note 35, at 76. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 82. ↩
Id. at 88. ↩
Id. at 89. ↩
Id. at 92
(discussing the situation against Rohingya Muslims, compared to the situation in Thailand). ↩
Id. at 101. ↩
Freeland, supra note 29, at 1035. ↩
Id. at 1039. ↩
Id. ↩
Thio, supra note 37, at 79. ↩
William W. Burke-White, Proactive Complementarity: The International Criminal Court and National Courts in the Rome System of Justice, 49 Harv. Int’l L.J. 53, 93 (2008), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
See Thio, supra note 51, at 25. ↩
Schuldt, supra note 35, at 101. ↩
Id. at n.141. ↩
Id. at 101. ↩
Thio, supra note 37, at 38. ↩
Mervat Rishmawi, The League of Arab States: Human Rights Standards and Mechanisms, Open Society Foundations 1, 11 (Nov. 30, 2015), available online. ↩
Id. at 68. ↩
Id. at 70. ↩
Ahmed Almutawa, The Arab Court of Human Rights and the Enforcement of the Arab Charter on Human Rights, 21 Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 506, 506 (Sep. 2021), available online, doi. ↩
Id. at 507. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 519. ↩
League of Arab States, Charter of Arab League, Art. 16 (ratified Mar. 22, 1945), available online. ↩
Rishmawi, supra note 59, at 80. ↩
Id. at 82. ↩
Id. at 70. ↩
Almutawa, supra note 62, at 507. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
Konstantinos D. Magliveras & Gino Naldi, The Arab Court of Human Rights: A Study in Impotence, 29 SQDI 147, 151 (2016), available online. ↩
Id. at 163. ↩
Id. ↩
International Commission of Jurists, The Arab Court of Human Rights: A Flawed Statute for an Ineffective Court 5, 6 (2015) [hereinafter Flawed Statute], available online. ↩
Rishmawi, supra note 59, at 80–81. ↩
Id. at 82. ↩
Id. ↩
Almutawa, supra note 62, at 528. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. at 529. ↩
Flawed Statute, supra note 76, at 6. ↩
Id. at 22. ↩
I. Introduction
Universal criminal jurisdiction allows any nation to prosecute serious international crimes. Although universal criminal jurisdiction exists under the current state of international criminal law, its decentralized nature has proven to be a weakness. This current lack of international cooperation can be resolved through the development of transgovernmental networks. However, implementation of successful transgovernmental networks is stymied by diverging views among nation states, as well as individual actors’ lack of ability to forge direct relationships with each other. The OTP can help navigate these roadblocks and foster transgovernmental networks by establishing international norms, fostering transnational communication between individual actors, and developing and utilizing specialized networks.
First, the OTP can help networks establish norms and standards by creating opportunities for participants to meet, exchange dialogue, and find shared objectives to establish agreed-upon norms. Importantly, such norms and standards need not be so formal with intense enforcement measures. Transgovernmental networks are designed to be informal, while cooperation with international norms are self-enforcing due to overriding common interests.
Next, the OTP can foster transgovernmental communication by building horizontal relationships between individual actors and their international counterparts.
Lastly, the OTP can increase the utility and legitimacy of transgovernmental networks by developing specialized networks and connecting these networks to nation states who require specialized assistance.
Risks that must be considered in the implementation of transgovernmental networks include potential dominance of networks by a few powerful countries, inconsistent application of standards, and exclusivity. However, such concerns exist for all international matters and we must not let them hinder us from seeking to advance transgovernmental relations.
II. Current State of International Criminal Law
Universal criminal jurisdiction is a principle of international law that allows any nation to prosecute certain serious international crimes regardless of where they are committed, by whom they are committed, or against whom they are committed.1 Under the current state of international criminal law, universal criminal jurisdiction exists but its decentralized nature has proven to be a weakness.2 For example, as of 2005, there was no international network to strategize and coordinate litigation.3 As of 2009, no successful prosecutions and trials of high-ranking officials have been noted under the universality principle, which is partly attributed to the lack of international cooperation.4
This glaring lack of international cooperation can be explained in part by the globalization paradox, which describes the universal recognition of the need for some type of international government while fearing it at the same time.5 As such, the solution to a lack of international cooperation must appease those who fear the harmful potential of an international government.
III. Transgovernmental Networks
In this comment, I argue that the OTP can make itself an effective partner to nation states exercising universal jurisdiction by developing transgovernmental networks, which would build international cooperation while appeasing those who fear an international governing entity.
Transgovernmental networks consist of individual actors within governments of various nations who make policy by directly and informally coordinating with each other.6 In transgovernmental networks, subunits of different governments may interact with each other without being controlled by the policies of the cabinets or the executives of those governments, “often with minimal supervision by foreign ministries.”7 Cooperation in these informal networks is based on “loosely-structured, peer-to-peer ties developed through frequent interaction rather than formal negotiation.”8 Because they are not bogged down by procedural rules, they are more flexible and adaptable.9 Rather than being characterized by formal associates and cooperation, transgovernmental networks interact in a “looser, ad hoc fashion.”10 Additionally, instead of setting rules through typical processes of formal treaty negotiations, transgovernmental networks rely primarily on “soft-law” mechanisms to create standards.11
Turner posits that transgovernmental networks could offer an effective response to the globalization paradox in international law.12 Due to their more informal nature, transgovernmental networks can appease those who are wary of an international government body while being an effective solution to the lack of international cooperation.
Investigators, prosecutors, and judges who work with international crimes are already beginning to collaborate with their transnational counterparts in such ways.13 In investigate networks, investigators of several international criminal tribunals cooperate with each other to exchange information and strategies.14 Similarly, prosecution networks consist of transnational prosecutors who exchange ideas about the best way to approach common prosecutorial challenges and issues faced globally.15 Lastly, judicial networks allow national and international judges to engage in dialogue concerning legal norms, which encourages participants to consider and benefit from transnational views.16
Having the OTP develop transgovernmental networks for these international criminal law professionals would serve to reinforce and foster ongoing efforts of collaboration that will ultimately strengthen universal criminal jurisdiction. Transgovernmental networks for international criminal law would allow and encourage investigators, prosecutors, and judges to continue coordinating and cooperating with each other in more flexible and informal ways.17
IV. Roadblocks to Implementing Transgovernmental Networks
Indeed, there are several issues with implementing successful transgovernmental networks. One, transnational collaboration is difficult because views on important criminal law questions diverge among nation states.18 This is because criminal law involves judgments about responsibility and punishment that have no objective right answer and depend on the particular moral views and political cultures of the affected communities.19 Secondly, government officials in countries often lack the autonomy needed to forge direct relationships with their foreign counterparts.20 Still, with more nation states seeking to exercise universal jurisdiction, the potential utility for transgovernmental networks is higher than ever.
The OTP is uniquely situated to make itself an effective partner in the development of such transgovernmental networks and resolving these issues. As Reydams claims, “[t]he future of universal jurisdiction… may depend on the ICC prosecutor.”21 Specifically, the OTP can develop transgovernmental networks by helping establish international norms, fostering horizontal relations between individual actors, and developing and utilizing specialized networks.
V. Establishing International Norms and Standards
Establishing shared international norms and standards is important to foster the transnational collaboration necessary for successful transgovernmental networks.22 The OTP can consolidate nation states’ diverging views by helping establish norms and standards that are agreed upon by the international community.
Firstly, the OTP can help establish shared standards by planning and sponsoring conferences and training sessions for individual actors of participating nation states. Giving participants an opportunity to meet and exchange dialogue in a more intimate and collegial setting would help participants strengthen a sense of common identity, emphasize shared objectives, and foster the consolidation of diverging views.23 Through this open dialogue, transgovernmental participants can channel their common objectives into defining soft international standards. Participants can then bring these agreed-upon ideas back to their domestic jurisdiction to promote international values within their domestic bureaucracies, which will slowly begin shaping prosecutorial norms across nations..By subtly influencing domestic norms to adapt to international standards, participating actors can increase the strength and solidarity of established international norms.24
As an example, judges from the ICC, International Criminal Tribunal of Yugoslavia, and International Criminal Tribunal of Rwanda are actively involved in meetings and training sessions with their international counterparts.25 Participant judges carry lessons learned at such international meetings back to their domestic courts where they rely on each other’s persuasive reasoning.26 In this way, participants exchange ideas, establish international norms, and implement these international norms domestically.27 The growing willingness of judges to consider transnational norms is only enriched by the increase in face-to-face interaction.28 This can also have a cyclical effect where judges are more willing to engage with their transnational counterparts as international standards are increasingly normalized.
It is important to note that such norms and standards need not be so formal. A key advantage of a transnational network is its potential to be more informal and unbuttoned than other forms of transgovernmental interaction.29 A transnational network is meant to encourage candid dialogue among its participants that leads to the informal sharing of best practices, advice, and guidance.30 Even disagreement among participants is fruitful by encouraging diversity of opinion. Just by regularly exchanging informal dialogue, legal professionals across the globe can develop databases of agreed-upon best practices.31 Best practices are then borrowed by participants who bring these international norms back to their domestic institutions and seek to socialize them into the policies and practices of their domestic institutions.32 In this way, a transgovernmental network’s casual discussion over best practices can subtly turn such practices into informal benchmarks and standards.
However, there is also ample opportunity for transgovernmental networks to have more formalized benchmarks and standards. The ICC could gather its own database of best practices from various states, which it could then disseminate to participants in the form of an official guide. For example, ICC is considering the development of prosecutorial standards and manuals similar to the IAP’s Human Rights Manual, which would serve as a guide to national authorities undertaking international crimes prosecution.33
One may ask how internationally established norms and standards will be enforced. Proponents of transgovernmental networks insist that cooperation with these benchmarks and standards is mostly self-enforcing because common interests always prevail.34 Participants establish long-term relationships with each other through these networks, which also creates incentives to follow best practices to establish a good reputation within the network’s community.
The OTP could also assist with the execution of “soft-law sanctions” when participants defy established standards, such as when a participant implements a standard in a way that conflicts with the majority’s understanding of that standard.35 Such sanctions could include shaming, suspending technical assistance, or even excluding the contravening participant from the network.36 The OTP has the influence and resources to make these soft-law sanctions truly impactful.
More importantly, the existence of the ICC itself serves as a backstop that will encourage participants to adopt established international norms. Under complementarity, the ICC is only permitted to intervene in international criminal law matters when the courts of the national jurisdiction where the crimes occurred are unwilling or unable to genuinely investigate and prosecute these crimes.37 Domestic institutions seeking to be recognized as conducting “genuine” prosecutions will seek to adopt and internalize such international norms in their prosecution process in order to demonstrate genuineness in their efforts.38
Critics argue that international criminal justice is highly political sensitive, which prevents true transgovernmental cooperation.39 However, with the rise of globalization and the emergence of new transnational threats, the international legal system must be able to influence the domestic policies of nation states, and nation states are beginning to recognize this.40 With the rise of universal jurisdiction, courts are increasingly referring to each other’s opinions.41 This shows that nation states are willing to rely on each other’s reasoning and norms in a highly politically sensitive area.
Additionally, in its ideal form, transgovernmental networks will foster an open dialogue that promotes understandings of international criminal law that reflect the views of the most affected countries who are participants of such networks.42 This can also help build meaningful transgovernmental cooperation by framing the conversation around those most impacted by discussions. Although international criminal law will never cease to be a highly political and sensitive area, transgovernmental networks can encourage diversity of opinion and embolden participants’ willingness to civilly disagree while still acknowledging and learning from differing views.
VI. Connecting Individual Actors
Next, the OTP can nurture transgovernmental networks by connecting individual investigators, prosecutors, and judges with their international counterparts. These horizontal contacts allow international counterparts to collaborate with their equals to create and strengthen transgovernmental networks.
The OTP has already recognized the importance of establishing vertical networks, which consist of close contacts and collaboration between the ICC and national officials.43 Turner posits that once vertical networks are established with the assistance of the OTP, this will lay the ground for more regular horizontal contacts and relations among law officials transnationally.44
The OTP can directly assist in building horizontal contacts and relations by connecting individual actors with each other. The OTP has already expressed its willingness to provide this type of information and assistance to national authorities.45 There are endless contributions that the OTP is uniquely situated to do when it comes to connecting transgovernmental actors, from convening meetings of NGOs and states to brokering contacts between states and institutions.46
Building horizontal networks fits closely with the existing strategies of the OTP, who has stated that it will rely:
Indeed, the ICC has already begun fostering such intergovernmental relations. For example, prosecutors from various international criminal tribunals meet with ICC prosecutors annually to “discuss the challenges and lessons learned in the investigation and prosecution of international crimes.”48 Additionally, the IAP has met with the ICC to begin working on a Memo of Understanding, which would outline possibilities for more regular exchanges among prosecution agencies around the world.49 With more involvement by the OTP, horizontal communication between intergovernmental professionals can flourish.
VII. Building and Utilizing Specialized Networks
Lastly, the OTP can provide the coordination that has been lacking thus far to develop specialized transnational networks that will create effective pathways of assistance to states in need.50
First, the OTP can help build specialized transgovernmental networks that are experts in certain fields. The OTP can “maintain a roster of willing experts, consultants, and NGOs able to assist states.”51 The OTP can use this roster and its connections with national governments to find actors who are willing to stimulate aid to states seeking assistance.52 The OTP can then connect these actors with other to help build such specialized transnational networks.
Subsequently, the OTP can connect these specialized transgovernmental networks to national governments seeking specific types of assistance. The OTP is uniquely positioned to recognize the failures and lacking areas of domestic judiciaries.53 For example, the OTP can identify a nation with weak prosecutorial ability and bring them to the attention of the right transnational networks that can help them build up their prosecutorial capacity.54 The OTP can also directly request specialized networks to assist troubled states.55 As Burke-White puts it, “the ICC is likely to excel at coordinating the efforts of different institutions.”56 Building and connecting specialized transgovernmental networks to states in need will increase the networks’ utility while also building their legitimacy.
VIII. Potential Risks
Indeed, there are several risks which must be considered in the implementation of transgovernmental networks.
One is the potential dominance of such networks by a few powerful countries.57 Networks may be subject to capture by economically dominant nation-states.58 It is already argued that:
Indeed, this concern is not exclusive to the implementation of transgovernmental networks and is an important consideration for all international matters.
Secondly, critics may argue that even if transgovernmental networks establish agreed-upon norms, there will be wildly inconsistent application of such standards by its participants.60 However, this critique may overvalue the need for uniform consistency in the way international law is interpreted and enforced.61 Turner claims that some degree of variation is “an important element of the local legitimacy of international law.”62 As such, although it is important to take this concern into consideration, we should not let this hinder us from seeking to advance transgovernmental relations.
Most importantly, there is an issue of exclusivity. If dialogue between national judicial actors from different countries does shape international law and legal norms, then non-participants are “the worse for not having contact with it.”63 Post-conflict nations who do not have access to transnational networks will not be able to “benefit from the norms produced by that dialogue, and their experience and views do not play a role in crafting the concerned international legal rules.”64 The issue of exclusivity is perhaps the most pressing, which means inclusivity must be actively sought when implementing transgovernmental networks.
IX. Conclusion
In conclusion, the OTP can make itself an effective partner to nation states exercising universal jurisdiction by helping develop transgovernmental networks. The OTP can overcome some of the key hinderances to the successful implementation of transgovernmental networks by helping establish international norms, fostering transnational communication between individual actors, and building and utilizing specialized networks. Although there are risks that must be carefully considered in the implementation of transgovernmental networks, such risks exist for all international matters and we must not let them hinder us from seeking to advance transgovernmental relations.
Endnotes — (click the footnote reference number, or ↩ symbol, to return to location in text).
Douglass Cassel, Universal Criminal Jurisdiction, 31 Hum. Rts. 22, 22 (2004), available online. ↩
Luc Reydams, Universal Jurisdiction in Context, 99 ASIL Proceedings 118, 119 (2005), paywall, doi. ↩
Id. at 119. ↩
See Cedric Ryngaert, The International Criminal Court and Universal Jurisdiction: A Fraught Relationship?, 12 New Crim. L. Rev. 498, 507 (2009), available online, doi.
(“This is attributable to the role of international immunities, the fear of upsetting foreign nations, the primarily domestic focus of national prosecutors, and, of course, the projected lack of capacity and international cooperation to see an investigation through.”). ↩
Jenia Iontcheva Turner, Transnational Networks and International Criminal Justice, 105 Mich. L. Rev. 985, 987 (Mar. 2007), available online. ↩
Id. at 986. ↩
Kal Raustiala, The Architecture of International Cooperation: Transgovernmental Networks and the Future of International Law, 43 Va. J. Int’l L. 2, 5, 19 (2002), paywall, earlier version, doi. ↩
Id. at 5. ↩
See id. at 23. ↩
Elena Baylis, Reassessing the Role of International Criminal Law: Rebuilding National Courts Through Transnational Networks, 50 B.C. L. Rev. 1, 61 (2009), available online. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 994
(describing how soft-law mechanisms include “standards, guidelines, and memoranda of understanding.”). ↩
Id. at 987. ↩
Id. at 986. ↩
Id. at 1007.
(“For example, when the International Criminal Court began its first investigations in Uganda, Congo, and Sudan, it relied on effective practices identified by the Yugoslavia and Rwanda tribunals before it.”). ↩
Id. at 1010–13.
(The International Association of Prosecutors is one such informal prosecutorial network that promotes global cooperation among prosecutors in investigating transnational crimes). ↩
Baylis, supra note 10, at 64; see also Paul Schiff Berman, From International Law to Law and Globalization, 43 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 485, 503 (2005), available online. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 987–88. ↩
Id. at 988. ↩
Id. at 995. ↩
Id. at 989. ↩
Reydams, supra note 2, at 119. ↩
See Anne-Marie Slaughter & William W. Burke-White, The Future of International Law is Domestic (or, the European Way of Law), 47 Harv. Int’l L.J. 327, 339–40 (2006), available online
(discussing how mechanisms like setting benchmarks and standards is important to build domestic-capacity because the success of policies at the international level depends on political choices at the national level). ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1014. ↩
See id. at 988
(discussing how transgovernmental networks can subtly influence domestic norms by connecting individual investigators, prosecutors, and judges, who could advocate internally for prosecutions consistent with network standards). ↩
Id. at 1015. ↩
Id. at 1015–16.
(“As Anne-Marie Slaughter has observed, we are witnessing a rise of a community of courts in which judges are increasingly referring to each other’s opinions not because these opinions are binding authority, but because of their persuasive reasoning.”). ↩
See id. at 1016.
(“So an important benefit of these less formal judicial networks is that they accommodate legitimate diversity of opinion, even as they exchange useful ideas and information on how to implement international norms domestically.”). ↩
Berman, supra note 16, at 503. ↩
Baylis, supra note 10, at 60. ↩
Lisa J. Laplante, The Domestication of International Criminal Law: A Proposal for Expanding the International Criminal Court’s Sphere of Influence, 43 John Marshall L. Rev. 635, 674 (2010), available online. ↩
Slaughter & Burke-White, supra note 22, at 334. ↩
William W. Burke-White, The Domestic Influence of International Criminal Tribunals: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the Creation of the State Court of Bosnia & Herzegovina, 46 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 279, 307 (2008), available online. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1014. ↩
Raustiala, supra note 7, at 24. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1024. ↩
Id. ↩
Christopher D. Totten & Nicholas Tyler, Arguing for an Integrated Approach to Resolving the Crisis in Darfur: The Challenges of Complementarity, Enforcement, and Related Issues in the International Criminal Court, 98 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 1069, 1080–81 (2008), available online. ↩
Burke-White, supra note 32, at 308. ↩
See Turner, supra note 5, at 992
(discussing how international criminal justice is more politically sensitive and therefore less likely to engender transgovernmental cooperation). ↩
Slaughter & Burke-White, supra note 22, at 328. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1016. ↩
Id. at 996. ↩
Id. at 1003. ↩
Id. at 1004. ↩
Id. at 1003. ↩
William W. Burke-White, Proactive Complementarity: The International Criminal Court and National Courts in the Rome System of International Justice, 49 Harv. Int’l L.J. 53, 96 (2008), available online. ↩
Id. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1010. ↩
Id. at 1013. ↩
See Reydams, supra note 2, at 119
(discussing how the OTP can provide the coordination that has been lacking and could give universal jurisdiction a quasi-conventional basis among states-parties). ↩
Burke-White, supra note 46, at 96. ↩
Id. ↩
Id. ↩
See Turner, supra note 5, at 1003–04
(noting that where the ICC does not have the resources to provide assistance, “it plans to put the relevant governments in contact with other partners who can help them build up their prosecutorial capacity.”). ↩
Burke-White, supra note 46, at 96. ↩
Id. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1029. ↩
Berman, supra note 16, at 503. ↩
Melissa A. Waters, Normativity in the “New” Schools: Assessing the Legitimacy of International Legal Norms Created by Domestic Courts, 32 Yale J. Int’l L. 455, 464 (2007), available online. ↩
Turner, supra note 5, at 1020. ↩
Id. at 1021. ↩
Id. ↩
See Baylis, supra note 10, at 65
(explaining the impact that being isolated from international foreign colleagues can have on Congolese courts). ↩
Id. ↩
On assuming office as the ICC Prosecutor, Karim Khan KC moved early to make complementarity an important cornerstone of his prosecutorial policy. In so doing, he has reset the ICC on the universal objectives established by the Rome Statute.
Complementarity will be effective only in situations where legislative frameworks exist for the prosecution of alleged crimes committed or at least some of them within the national jurisdictions where the crimes are committed or national jurisdictions exercising universal jurisdiction. Regrettably the Rome Statute architecture does not have an effective robust compliance mechanism for state parties to enact the Rome Statute core crimes into national legislative frameworks. As a result, a majority of State Parties have not domesticated the Rome Statute and ancillary rules and regulations. This complicates the exercise of complementarity.
The Assembly of State Parties of the Rome Statute must carry out an effective campaign for all State Parties to domesticate the Rome Statute, enact legislation on effective witness protection mechanisms, rules of procedure and evidence, and ancillary rules which may be required for effective investigations and prosecutions. Pre-trial Chambers of the ICC must weigh the capacity of national jurisdictions to carry out effective prosecutions prior to granting requests for investigations by the OTP of the ICC. A major criteria to consider is whether the national jurisdiction has domesticated the Rome Statute and has in place an effective legislative framework to carry out prosecutions which fully cover the crimes committed.
Pre-trial Chambers have not paid reasonable attention to this threshold problem in their decisions. This is unfortunate.
The ASP has a duty to ensure that the Rome Statute is functional and effective. It has not done so, unfortunately. The domestication of the Rome Statute, by State Parties and non-State Parties, will put perpetrators of atrocity crimes world-wide on notice that they will have nowhere to hide from prosecution by national jurisdictions, universal jurisdictions, or at the ICC. This will dissuade atrocity crimes and fulfill a key objective of the Rome Statute.
Positive Complementarity Revisited
Summary
The Current Decentralized Accountability question, in my view, entails a consideration of the following important principles and issues: positive complementarity, complementarity, universal jurisdiction, and the role of regional and international organization in international criminal justice as partners with the International Criminal Court (ICC). In this comment, I focus on providing a foundational analysis on the policy of positive complementarity so as to intensely inform further discourse. It is the argument of this comment that the Cooperation Agreement signed between the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICC and the Government of Colombia, on October 28, 2021, has invariably provoked unabating scholarly discourse, which has engendered a renewed impetus to revisit the definition, nature and scope of the concept of positive complementarity. Inimical to this discourse is the glaring dearth of available literature of the law on positive complementarity, accentuated by the virtually absence of pertinent authoritative jurisprudence of the ICC on the concept. In light of the preceding impediments, this comment seeks, in an overarching approach, to revisit the debate on the nature of the concept of positive complementarity. It re-explores the opportunities presented, the benefits generated, and the challenges posed by the development and implementation of the concept of positive complementarity in the realm of international criminal justice.
I. Introduction
The unsettled legal character of the concept of positive complementarity continues to engender considerable intellectual interest and unabating scholarly discourse. [See Kai Ambos, Slow wheels of justice: International Criminal Court’s disappointing track record Spiegel Online International, available online (last visited Jul. 2, 2022). See also Ainley, Camb. Rev. Int. 309 (2011); Burke-White, Crim. Law Forum 59 (2008).] revolving basically around its definition, nature, and scope. Much uncertainty still lingers as to the exact meaning of positive complementarity and the practicality of attaining the goals it is intended to achieve. [See generally Walters, The ICC in Practice: Its Ability to Prevent the Future Occurrence of Mass Atrocity in Consultancy Africa Intelligence, available online.] A universally authoritative definition of the concept of positive complementarity has remained largely illusive to date. [See Nino SV, When a Preliminary Examination Closes, a New Era Opens: The OTP’s Innovative Support for Transitional Justice in Colombia, OpinioJuris (Dec. 2, 2021), available online.] In addition to the glaring dearth of relevant literature of the law on positive complementarity, the jurisprudence of the ICC has to date offered little in the way of exposition of the concept.
In a recent development, with profound implications for positive complementarity, the OTP of the ICC entered into a Cooperation Agreement [Cooperation Agreement between the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court and the Government of Colombia, signed in the city of Bogota, D.C., on October 28, 2021 202111028-OTP-COL-Coperation-Agreement, available online.] with the Government of Colombia, on October 28, 2021, which was “inspired by the principle of complementarity.” [See Office of the Prosecutor Press Release (Oct. 28, 2021) The Office of the Prosecutor of ICC, Mr. Karim Khan KC, concludes preliminary examination of the Situation in Colombia with a Cooperation Agreement with the Government charting the next stage in support of domestic efforts to advance transitional justice, available online.] In its Statement, the OTP declared that the Agreement “marks the beginning of a new chapter of support and engagement—an example of positive complementarity in action.” [This is in consonance with position take by the Prosecutor, Karim Khan.] Notably, the agreement was designed to reinforce and further define the mutual roles of the parties to ensure significant progress is achieved by domestic prosecutorial and judicial entities of Colombia [See Lievano AB, The ICC backs Colombia’s Transitional Justice Model, JusticeInfo (Nov. 9, 2021), available online.] The OTP commits itself to engage in supporting and learning from national accountability processes in Colombia. [Cooperation Agreement, preamble, ¶ 14.] This Agreement has, arguably, breathed a new life into positive complementarity. [See generally Kai Ambos, The Return of “Positive Complementarity”, Blog of the European Journal of International Law (Nov. 3, 2021), available online.] It demonstrates the apparent realization by the Office of the Prosecutor that more needs to be done to cooperate with the national jurisdictions if the fight against impunity is to be effectively won. The engagement by the OTP with the national jurisdictions has thus become priority policy issue for the ICC Prosecutor, Karim Khan.
It is the argument of this comment that the Cooperation Agreement has, no doubt, engendered a renewed impetus, that has invariably provoked the intellectual desire, among many scholars and other stakeholders, and accentuated the need, to revisit the definition of positive complementarity. [See Rogier E, The Ethos of ‘Positive Complementarity,’ Blog of the European Journal of International Law (Dec. 11, 2018), available online. See also Bates G, The ICC Doesn’t Look So Interventionist After All, Foreign Policy, Dec. 8, 2021, available online] It is important to note that the definition of positive complementarity has never been settled. Various explanations have been advanced by different scholars, institutions, and other stakeholders as to what constitutes the policy or concept of positive complementarity. As we shall see later in this comment, some of the explanations advanced have tended to accentuate the conflation in the difference between the classical complementarity and positive complementarity.
In light of the preceding developments in the realm of international criminal justice, this comment seeks, in an overarching approach, to explore the development of the concept of positive complementarity, and to revisit its definition. [See Bernard, IJHSS 203 (2011).] It also explores the opportunities presented, the benefits generated, and the challenges posed by the development and implementation of the concept of positive complementarity. [See Salvatore, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 137 (2010).]
II. Positive Complementarity: A Concept in Intricate Relations
The Rome Statute does not provide any definition, let alone a mention, of the term “positive complementarity” or “complementarity”, other than the use of the term “complementary” in its preamble and in article 1. The Statute merely provides that the ICC shall be complementary to national criminal jurisdiction. [Article 1 of the Rome Statute.] The origin of the term complementarity can be explained by the fact that it was coined by the delegates, during the drafting sessions of the Rome Conference, [See United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court Rome 15 June-17 July 1998 Official Records vol 1 Final Documents A/CONF.183/13 (vol I). The Final documents are available online.] to cover the admissibility requirements under article 17 of the Rome Statute. [See Crawford, Drafting of the Rome Statute 109, 147. See further Benedetti & Washburn Global Governance 22. See also Heller, Crim. Law Forum 257 (2006), available online.] It emerges that the provisions of the Rome Statute emphasize complementarity as one of the cornerstones of the functioning and jurisdiction of the ICC. [See Cooperation Agreement, ¶ 3.]
The principle of complementarity maintains that, in general, the national criminal courts will enjoy priority, over the ICC, in the investigation and prosecution of Rome Statute crimes committed within its national jurisdiction. [Author’s thesis.] Put another way, the ICC complements, rather than supersedes, the national jurisdiction. The ICC may only intervene in such cases when the national jurisdiction is “unable or unwilling” to effectively undertake its responsibilities. [Author’s thesis.] In light of the preceding explanation, complementarity may be viewed as a tool for the apportionment of jurisdiction between the national courts and the ICC. [See Bergsmo, Eur. J. Crime. Cr. J. 345 (1998).]
Complementarity, in essence, forms the basis upon which the concept of positive complementarity evolved. There is evidently an intricate linkage between the concept of positive complementarity and the classic principle of complementarity. It is worth noting that the ICC, in its jurisprudence, has not come up with any functional definition of the concept of positive complementarity. It may be asserted that, currently, there is no formal source of international criminal law that expresses the definition of positive complementarity. [See discussion in Thormundsson J, The Sources of International Criminal Law With Reference to the Human Rights Principles of Domestic Criminal Law, Stockholm Institute of Scandinavian Law, 387–93, available online.] Consequently, it may be argued that positive complementarity is merely a concept devoid of formal legal content. [Nieto-Navia R, International peremptory norms (jus cogens) and international humanitarian law, available online further discussion on the normative value see Byers, Nord. J. Int’l L 213 (1997).]
However, positive complementarity may be defined in terms of the approach adopted by the first ICC Chief Prosecutor and the OTP which encourages genuine national proceedings where possible; relies on national and international networks; and participates in a system of international cooperation. [Office of the Prosecutor, Report on 14 September 2006, available online. See also, on the failure of state cooperation, Coalition for the International Criminal Court, State Cooperation: The Weak Link of the ICC, available online.]
From the preceding definition, it can be argued that positive complementarity connotes national and international networks in the pursuit of international criminal justice. The concept of positive complementarity has also been defined by the OTP as “a proactive policy of cooperation aimed at promoting national proceedings.” [Office of Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy 1 February 2010, available online.] It was defined as all activities or actions whereby national jurisdictions are strengthened and enabled to conduct genuine national investigations and trials of crimes included in the Rome Statute, without involving the Court in capacity building, financial support and technical assistance. [See Review Conference of the Rome Statute Draft Resolution on Complementarity ICC-ASP/8/Res.9 Annex VII (Jun. 8, 2010).]
The question to pose, at this juncture, is whether there is any correlation between the “impunity gap” [See discussion in Tladi D, Complementarity and cooperation in international criminal justice: Assessing initiatives to fill the impunity gap, Institute of Security Studies Paper (Nov. 27, 2014).] notion and the development of the concept of positive complementarity. This is examined in the ensuing section.
III. The Notion of “Impunity Gap” and Positive Complementarity
Where, owing to capacity constraints, the ICC prosecutes only those most responsible for international crimes, an “impunity gap” is created, thereby allowing lesser-ranking offenders a degree of impunity. [See Report of the Bureau on Stocktaking of the Principle of Complementarity: Bridging the Impunity Gap ICC-ASP/8/51 Resumed Eighth Session (Mar. 18, 2010).] Consequently, many lesser-ranking offenders are left for the domestic criminal courts to deal with. [See, for example, The Prosecutor v. Joseph Kony, Vincent Otti, Okot Odhiambo and Dominic Ongwen, ICC-02/04-01/05-377 (Mar. 10, 2009), available online.] Coupled with the limitations inherent in national jurisdiction, the result is that the “impunity gap” tends to remain largely addressed. Arguably, this has led the ICC, in some instances, to cooperate with national jurisdictions to ensure that all the perpetrators of atrocity crimes are brought to justice. It has been argued that, in this way, positive complementarity can help deal with the impunity gap by encouraging domestic prosecutions of Rome Statute crimes, even those that may not satisfy the “gravity threshold” for prosecution by the ICC. [See generally Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 49 (2014), available online]
The paper, therefore, underscores the significance of the concept of positive complementarity in addressing the shortcomings arising from the impunity gap. [See generally Bjork & Goebertus, Complementarity in Action, Yale Hum. Rts. & Dev. L. J. 205 (2014).]
IV. The Nature and Scope of Positive Complementarity
The principal tenets—most notably the definition, the constitutive elements, and the scope—of the concept of positive complementarity, remain largely unclear. The parameters of application, and the formal justification, for positive complementarity, have remained ambiguous, thereby rendering the concept susceptible to varied interpretations. The absence of a universally acceptable definition introduces a degree of uncertainty as to the exact nature of positive complementarity. This renders it a mere instrument of rhetoric rather than an effective instrument for sealing the impunity gap. Attempts by various scholars to refine the basic tenets of positive complementarity do not appear to have settled this issue. [See generally Stahn, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 695 (2005); Stahn, El Zeidy & Olásolo, Am. J. Int’l L. 421 (2005); Stahn, Leiden J. Int’l Law 311 (2010); Stahn, Crim. Law Forum 87 (2008).]
V. The Informal Expert Report
The limited resources available to the ICC have prevented the Court from achieving the lofty objectives of international criminal justice, [See Damaska, JILFA 19, 32 (2009).] and have, in part, influenced the OTP to reconsider the prosecutorial strategies it adopted with regard to its role within the Court structure. [See Danner, Am. J. Int’l L. 510, 543 (2002).]
The policies of the OTP as regards complementarity were partly influenced by the 2003 Informal Experts Report [Office of the Prosecutor, Informal Expert Paper: The Principle of Complementarity in Practice, ICC-OTP (2003) at 2, available online.] containing opinion on positive complementarity. [The Informal Expert Paper described “positive” complementarity as a policy concept.] Instructively, the Report observed that the OTP will initiate prosecutions of the leaders who bear most responsibility for the crimes. On the other hand it will encourage national prosecutions, where possible, for the lower-ranking perpetrators, or work with the international community to ensure that the offenders are brought to justice by some other means [See generally, Paper on Some Policy Issues Before the Office of the Prosecutor (Sep. 2003), available online.]
Thus the Report noted that complementarity is not intended to generate competition between the OTP and the domestic courts, but rather to encourage and support the domestic authorities to exercise national jurisdiction. It therefore suggests that the OTP should enter into a positive and constructive relationship with a state that is genuinely investigating and/or prosecuting an international crime. [See generally Office of the Prosecutor, Informal Expert Paper: The Principle of Complementarity in Practice, 11–12 (2003), available online.] The Report further proposes that under the legal mandate provided by the Rome Statute, the prosecutor can encourage the state concerned to initiate national proceedings, help develop cooperative anti-impunity strategies, and possibly provide certain forms of assistance to facilitate national efforts. [See discussion in Osofsky, 107 Yale L. J. 191 (1997).] The Report argues that it is within the mandate of the ICC prosecutor to exchange information and evidence to facilitate national investigations. [This argument is anchored in article 93(10) of the Rome Statute.] In effect, the Report states that by virtue of article 93(10), the Court may cooperate with and provide assistance to a state.
Assistance may be extended by way of technical advice, such as legal advice and other technical forms of intervention, to the authorities in the state [See Cakmak, IJWP 3 (2006).] to support its domestic courts in building capacity. [See Howland, Wis. Int. Law J. 419–20 (2000).] The advice extended to such states would include, for instance, practical skills and knowhow as regards investigations and prosecution, [See article 18 Rome Statute. See also views in Wierda M, Stocktaking: Complementarity, International Centre for Transitional Justice Briefing Paper (May 2010).] such as advice on evidence, forensic audits, and other substantive and procedural legal aspects of trials before the ICC. [See the UN, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2004 (Jan. 25, 2005), available online.] The training exercise would be geared towards helping build domestic capacity in how to address the exercise of jurisdiction effectively. [See Palmer, African Journal of International & Comparative Law 13–14 (2012).]
The Informal Expert Report further suggested vigilance on the part of the ICC, to constantly seek to establish whether national jurisdiction is being exercised in consonance with the requirements of the Rome Statute. [See article 17 of the Rome Statute. See also Philips, Crim. Law Forum 61 (1999).]
The drafters of the Report considered the elements of article 17 as the basis on which they built their proposals for positive complementarity. The power to conduct fact-finding exercises and to secure cooperation in the context of positive complementarity, was also addressed. In this regard, from the Report it appears that the cooperation regime under Part 9 of the Rome Statute is linked to an “investigation” as set out under article 86 of the Rome Statute and also to the powers of the prosecutor under article 54. This cooperation regime is relevant for positive complementarity from the point of view that states would cooperate to allow the ICC to contribute to their national efforts to fight impunity.
In the following section, the OTP’s understanding of and response to the Report is addressed.
VI. A “Positive Approach to Complementarity” by the Office of the Prosecutor
A. Introduction
As the ICC embarked on handling its first investigations, situations, and cases, it soon emerged that the lofty goals and expectations associated with its formation would be difficult to achieve. [See generally Burke-White Crim. Law Forum 59 (2008).] There was manifest misalignment between the lofty expectations of the international community and the reality of the constraints on resources available to the Court. [See generally Burke-White, Crim. Law Forum 59 (2008).] This situation provided the impetus for a need to re-evaluate the strategies to be adopted by the OTP in its role within the international criminal justice system. Accordingly, the OTP adopted what it termed “a positive approach to complementarity.” This approach was embodied in the policies in its various prosecutorial strategies. The OTP interpreted its legal mandate to extend beyond a reactive response to state failure, and it consequently undertook to be proactive in encouraging states and cooperating with national and international actors to ensure genuine accountability for serious crimes. [Office of the Prosecutor, Paper on Some Policy Issues Before the Office of the Prosecutor (Sep. 2003), available online.]
B. The 2003 Paper on Some Policy Issues before the Office of the Prosecutor
The OTP’s 2003 Paper on Some Policy Issues (2003 OTP Policy Paper) highlights an attempt at articulating an approach to complementarity that led to the emergence of an idea of positive complementarity. [See Alai, Measured Hope: Positive Complementarity and Accountability for Sexual Violence Crimes in Kenya, in International Criminal Justice: The International Criminal Court and Complementarity: International Commission of Jurists Kenya Section Paper, 58 (2014).] It recognizes that national investigations and prosecutions, where they can properly be undertaken, will normally be the most effective and efficient means of bringing offenders to justice. The 2003 Policy Paper embraced positive complementarity, and stated that the new concept creates space for the positive involvement of the OTP in technical assistance to national jurisdictions. [See Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 53 (2008).] The first Chief Prosecutor of the ICC, Luis Moreno Ocampo stated that the effectiveness of the International Criminal Court should not be measured only by the number of cases that reach the Court. On the contrary, the absence of trials by the International Criminal Court, as a consequence of the regular functioning of national systems, would be a major success. [See Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Mr. Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Second Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court September 8, 2003, available online (last visited Sep. 23, 2023).]
Another critical policy issue brought to the fore by the policy document is that of the “impunity gap.” [See Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Mr. Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Second Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Sep. 8, 2003), available online.] This is, arguably, an important element in determining the parameters of the concept of positive complementarity. [See Bergsmo, Bekou & Jones, GoJIL 794 (2010), available online.] Based on the limitations in its budget and personnel, the ICC prosecutes those who bear the greatest responsibility for the crimes committed and leaves lower-ranking perpetrators to be tried by their national courts. [Assembly of States Parties, Report of the Bureau on Stocktaking: Complementarity. Taking stock of the principle of complementarity: Bridging the impunity gap, ICC-ASP/8/51 Resumed Eighth Session (Mar. 18, 2010).] The ICC, therefore, put in place measures to encourage national courts and provide support where possible so the lesser offenders may not escape justice under domestic jurisdiction. [See Benzing, UNYB (2003).]
The OTP indicated that it would be “… encouraging States to carry out their primary responsibility of investigating and prosecuting crimes.” [See generally Policies and Strategies, ICC OTP available online (last visited Sep. 23, 2023).] The 2003 Policy Paper therefore set the foundation upon which the thinking for positive complementarity begins to emerge. The ensuing prosecution strategy paper, discussed in the next section, takes this thinking a step further.
C. The Office of the Prosecutor: Prosecutorial Strategy 2006–2009
The 2006–2009 Prosecutorial Strategy Paper (2006–2009 Strategy). [Office of the Prosecutor, Report on 14 September 2006, available online.] sets out five strategic objectives of the OTP between 2006 and 2009. The fifth objective is most closely linked to positive complementarity, [The fifth strategic objective provides: “(e) to establish forms of cooperation with states and organizations to maximize the Office’s contribution to the fight against impunity and the prevention of crimes.”] as it provides that the Court will establish forms of cooperation with states and organizations to maximize the OTP’s contribution to the fight against impunity and the prevention of crime. [See Payam, Am. J. Int’l L. 403, 413 (2005).] It is submitted that this cooperation is an essential element of positive complementarity.
In its 2006–2009 Strategy, the OTP underscored the important role states play in the realisation of the goals of the concept of positive complementarity by “…emphasizing that according to the Statute national states have the primary responsibility for preventing and punishing atrocities in their own territories.” [See Hall, Positive Complementarity in Action, 1017.] The OTP officially pronounced “A positive approach to complementarity” [Office of the Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy, 3 (Sep. 14, 2006), available online (last visited Jun. 6, 2022). See also Ocampo LM, A Positive Approach to Complementarity, 23.] in which it declared that the OTP encourages genuine national proceedings where possible; relies on national and international networks; and participates in a system of international cooperation. [Gioia, Reverse Cooperation 75. See also on the failure of state cooperation, Coalition for the International Criminal Court, State Cooperation: The Weak Link of the ICC, available online.]
The OTP thus pursued a policy of encouraging genuine national proceedings where possible, including in situation countries, relying on its various networks of cooperation but without involving the Office directly in capacity building or financial or technical assistance. [See generally Gallmetzer, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 952, 956 (2010).] The prosecutor, therefore, construed his legal mandate to include a mutually reinforcing system of international criminal justice in which both the domestic and international jurisdictions were interdependent and acted as partners in limiting impunity. [Ocampo, A Positive Approach to Complementarity, 23.] It was during this period that the Court issued the Regulations defining the main policies of the OTP governing, inter alia, positive complementarity. [See Office of the Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy (Sep. 14, 2006), available online (last visited Jun. 6, 2022). See also, Burke-White, Reframing Positive Complementarity, 341.]
D. The Office of the Prosecutor’s Prosecutorial Strategy 2009–2012
The OTP’s Prosecutorial Strategy Policy Paper 2009–2012 (2009–2012 Strategy) [See Office of Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy (Feb. 1, 2010), available online.] emphasizes the significance of cooperation between the ICC and various actors and stakeholders in the international criminal justice system. [Office of Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy (Feb. 1, 2010), available online (last visited Jun. 13, 2022).] The OTP undertakes, in the report, to work with states and international, regional, thematic, and judicial organizations to, inter alia, promote national activities including the adoption of implementing legislation and the promotion of domestic proceedings. [Office of the Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy 2009–2012, ¶ 7, available online (last visited Jun. 24, 2022).] This is important to our analysis as it serves as a pointer to one of the characteristics of the concept of positive complementarity, namely, cooperation. [See Cassese, The Rationale for International Criminal Justice 1664.]
In the 2009–2012 Strategy, the OTP attempted to distinguish the two forms of complementarity by stating that:
[T]his principle of complementarity has two dimensions: (i) the admissibility test, i.e. how to assess the exercise of national proceedings and their genuineness, which is a judicial issue; and (ii) the positive complementarity concept, i.e. a proactive policy of cooperation aimed at promoting national proceedings. [Office of Prosecutor, Report on Prosecutorial Strategy (Feb. 1, 2010), available online ¶¶ 8, 16]
Under the positive complementarity scenario, the Court should provide support to domestic initiatives by helping to build national capacity. [See Takemura, A Critical Analysis of Positive Complementarity, 601, available online.]
The 2009–2012 Strategy of the OTP sought to reinforce efforts by domestic courts to combat impunity within the framework of the international criminal justice system. What is incontestable is that the ICC has tended to adopt a more cooperative strategy in which various stakeholders are actively engaged in tackling the challenges raised by the fight against impunity. [See generally Kleffner, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 86 (2003).]
VII. A Normative Challenge in the Definition of Positive Complementarity
Any attempt at a definition of the concept of positive complementarity will of necessity raise normative questions. The concept does not answer to definitive elements, legal parameters, or scope that would enable us to define it with exactitude. Its normative character remains elusive but the paper seeks to pin down key characteristics of the concept. [See generally Cross & William, Hum. Rights Law Rev. 344 (2010); See also Takemura, A Critical Analysis of Positive Complementarity 601.] The normative justification for positive complementarity is the subject of considerable discourse in existing literature. [See Burke-White, Crim. Law Forum 59 (2008).]
The concept of positive complementarity is the idea that the ICC and, notably, the prosecutor and the OTP, should work to engage national criminal courts in prosecutions, using various methods to encourage states to prosecute international criminal cases domestically whenever possible. [See Gioia, Reverse Cooperation, 75.]
It is submitted that the ultimate goal of a policy of positive complementarity is to strengthen the capacity of national criminal courts. This arguably will, in turn, have a significant positive impact on the promotion and restoration of the rule of law and thus the prevention of future atrocities. [See Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 53 (2008).] In retrospect, it has already been noted that this policy is geared towards enhancing concerted international efforts at limiting impunity. [See Stahn, Crim. Law Forum 87 (2008).]
It has been argued that positive complementarity is not expressly regulated, but it is embedded in the structure of complementarity in the Rome Statute. [See generally Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 49 (2008).] This does not, however, appear to provide a more succinct explanation of the term positive complementarity.
A. The Normative Discourse on “Positive” Complementarity
Stahn states that complementarity has been claimed to have many faces and has raised a paradox. [See generally Stahn, Taking Complementarity Seriously, 233.] He says that complementarity has traditionally been theorized on the basis of a distinction between “classical” and “positive” complementarity. [See generally Stahn, Taking Complementarity Seriously, 233.] The normative question posed is: To what extent does the classification of complementarity as “classical” or “positive” define the normative characterization of positive complementarity? It is submitted this classification will ultimately derive its validity from the contextual interpretation of the Rome Statute. [See arts 17 and 53 of the Rome Statute.]
According to Stahn, the jurisdiction of the ICC and the national authority may complement each other by interacting in a “positive” way, including engaging in activities that render mutual assistance. He argues that this “positive” dimension is not fully covered by the threat-based vision of complementarity. [See generally Stahn, Taking Complementarity Seriously, 233.]
Against this background, positive complementarity is viewed as a model that promotes a constructive relationship grounded on “partnership” and “dialogue” between the ICC and states, as opposed to the antagonistic approach inherent in the “classic” vision. [See generally Takemura, A Critical Analysis of Positive Complementarity, 601.] The positive approach to complementarity thus encourages genuine national proceedings where possible, particularly where the domestic courts are willing but perhaps unable to prosecute due to constraints such as inadequate capacity. [See generally Takemura, A Critical Analysis of Positive Complementarity, 601.]
In the preceding respect, positive complementarity is viewed more as a legal tool to strengthen international criminal jurisdiction by strengthening domestic jurisdiction. [This reflects the definition advanced in the Discussion Paper on Positive Complementarity presented by South Africa and Denmark, where the concept is defined it as “… describing all actions and activities aimed at supporting national jurisdictions in meeting their obligations under the Rome Statute, including related activities aimed at strengthening the rule of law.” See generally, Discussion Paper submitted by Denmark and South Africa, Bridging the Impunity Gap Through Positive Complementarity, 24 (Nov. 6, 2009). That definition proved to be so broad and was latter narrowed down in the Report of the Bureau on Stocktaking which defined positive complementarity as “all activities/actions whereby national jurisdictions are strengthened and enabled to conduct genuine national investigations and trails of crimes included in the Rome Statute, without involving the Court in capacity building, financial support and technical assistance.”]
Stahn also perceives positive complementarity as a “managerial” concept that is instrumental in organising the common responsibility of both national courts and the ICC by ensuring a division of labour and burden-sharing between the two entities.
The proposition by Stahn that positive complementarity is a managerial concept, is problematic from a normative point of view on two important levels. The first level is that the statement presupposes that legal instruments exist for ensuring effective management systems. Secondly, but flowing from the argument on the first level, is that it does not concern itself with an evaluation of the effectiveness of the so-called management system. Consequently, this only helps to generate confusion about what exactly positive complementarity as a managerial concept entails.
Burke-White, [See generally the series of works in which Burke-White attempted a spirited advocacy for proactive complementarity: Burke-White, Leiden J. Int’l Law 557 (2005); Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 53 (2008); Burke-White, Crim. Law Forum 59 (2008); and finally, Burke-White & Kaplan, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 257 (2009).] for his part, argues that “pro-active” complementarity is not expressly regulated but is embedded in the structure of complementarity in the Rome Statute. [See Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 49 (2008).] He argues for a change in the role of the ICC by practicing the policy of “proactive complementarity” by way of encouraging domestic courts to undertake national prosecutions. [See generally Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 53 (2008).] In effect, he advocates the shifting of the responsibility to prosecute offenders from the ICC to national courts. [See generally Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 59 (2008).] He further examines the legal mandate of the ICC to implement the policy of pro-active complementarity. [See generally Burke-White, Harv. Int’l L. J. 59 (2008).] To this extent he attempts to develop a normative justification for “proactive complementarity”. He argues that pro-active complementarity better reflects the nature of the policy and can be distinguished from “passive complementarity” which, according to him, is the approach the ICC has taken. [See generally Payam, Am. J. Int’l L. 403, 413 (2005).] His arguments are extremely significant in the context of the current debate.
Some may as well argue that the proposition adopted by Burke-White is a reflection of the OTP’s vision of positive complementarity. [See Robinson, Crim. Law Forum 67 (2010); Perrin, Sri Lanka JIL 301 (2006).] But caution ought to be exercised with that line of argument as it loses track of the critical elements Burke-White raises to justify the use of the term “proactive” as opposed to “positive”. Some of these elements could simply be summarized as normative constituents of proactive complementarity.
Based on the preceding analysis, it could be argued that positive complementarity and classical complementarity are founded on different premises. However, the arguments advanced by Nouwen regarding the plausibility or otherwise of the concept of positive complementarity are very interesting. She appears to take a radically different approach to whether positive complementarity can indeed stand as a term. [See Nouwen Complementarity in the Line of Fire 11.] Nouwen argues that complementarity has been living a double life: on the one hand, from a legal point of view it is a technical admissibility rule provided for in the Rome Statute and governing how the ICC may proceed with the investigation or prosecution of a case within its jurisdiction; [See Nouwen Complementarity in the Line of Fire 11.] on the other hand, complementarity presents as a “big idea” resulting from the work of writers, diplomats, activists, and legal practitioners. [See Nouwen Complementarity in the Line of Fire 11.]
To begin with, Nouwen’s argument, above, does not dismiss complementarity as a “big idea” stemming merely from the arguments of a certain class of people, but recognizes that although it bears little resemblance to the admissibility rule, complementarity as a “big idea” includes “responsibilities” and even obligations for states. [Compare with the arguments in Kaplan, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 257 (2009).] She contends that the advocates for complementarity as “a big idea” seek to promote a normative agenda beyond the confines of the Rome Statute. [In light of Nouwen’s argument it is instructive to look at Gioia, Reverse Cooperation, 75.]
The arguments above, by Nouwen, raise a normative challenge. Firstly, these lines of argument create considerable difficulty in ascertaining the justification for the policy concept in terms of which Nouwen identifies complementarity as the “big idea”. Secondly, they introduce confusion in that they fail actually to establish the normative existence of complementarity as “a big idea”.
It is, moreover, argued that the reference to “complementarity” as the policy of positive complementarity, is misleading, and that in effect the policy comes down to a form of cooperation which requires the ICC to facilitate domestic proceedings rather than the states assisting in the proceedings of the Court. [See Nouwen, Complementarity in the Line of Fire 97.]
It has been argued that a policy of assisting domestic jurisdiction is not inherent in complementarity. On this reasoning, it is not surprising that Nouwen elects to use the term complementarity as a “big idea” [Nouwen prefers the use of the term “complementarity” as a “big idea” in her works, electing to stay clear of the use of positive complementarity, and discussing it as a misnomer.] rather than positive complementarity.
Positive complementarity has not yet received juridical endorsement from the ICC judges [In all matters in which the Court has made a determination there has so far been no definition of positive complementarity advanced by any of the judges.] which continues to make the exact normative value and application of the concept uncertain.
The normative difficulty introduced by the foregoing frame of argument is that it presupposes a static or rigid supply of resources to the Court. The argument would have been more problematic had it operated on the assumption that national jurisdictions would naturally be cooperative. This assumption, however, fails plausibly to account for the possibility that national courts may refuse to cooperate with the ICC. In the absence of cooperation Nouwen’s argument collapses.
It is submitted that Stahn’s classification and his distinction between classic and positive complementarity provide fairly justifiable grounds for the establishment of the concept of positive complementarity—the positive form is a departure from the jurisdictional rigidity that has characterized classic complementarity. [Stahn, Crim. Law Forum 87 (2008). See also Stahn, Taking Complementarity Seriously, 233.]
It is necessary to exercise caution in the use of the word “positive” as it opens a “Pandora’s box” leading to normative ambiguity. The absence of a universally acceptable definition of the concept of positive complementarity has the potential to create ambiguity. It thus creates confusion when one uses the terms “proactive”, “positive” or “negative” complementarity. This raises a need to clarify the normative features of complementarity in general and positive complementarity in particular.
To summarise: the concept of positive complementarity still attracts differing perspectives and interpretations. There is no settled definition from the existing literature analyzed. There appears to be a multi-faceted approach to explaining what the concept of positive complementary means. In all these arguments, however, it emerges that positive complementarity is a radical departure from the basic elements of classic complementarity.
B. The Jurisprudential Foundation of Positive Complementarity
There is a glaring dearth of jurisprudence on positive complementarity. Interestingly, in The Prosecutor v. Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi, [See generally The Prosecutor v. Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi, ICC-01-/11-01/11 (2013).] the Libyan government’s legal team argued that:
The submission continued:
The concept of positive complementarity engenders new normative considerations which have not yet found a settled common ground among scholars and practitioners of international criminal law. This argument is echoed in the further submission by the Libyan-government team that:
The submission continues further that:
It is, moreover, argued that “the formal implementation of positive complementarity initiatives would enhance the certainty of any final disposition of the Article 19 challenge.” [The Prosecutor v. Said Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi, ICC-01/11-01/11-1 (PTC I, Jun. 27, 2011).] By ensuring the implementation of positive complementarity initiatives, the elements would be settled and that would provide the courts with a predictable basis for adjudication on matters involving the concept and, more particularly, admissibility issues under article 19. What is indeed surprising is that in response to the application by the government of Libya which articulated the concept of positive complementarity, Counsel for Al-Senussi made no mention of positive complementarity, as if to suggest it unworthy of attention.
It is instructive to note that in rendering its decision declaring the case inadmissible, Pre-Trial Chamber I did not cite positive complementarity as a ground for its decision but rather arrived at its decision based strictly on the admissibility rules as set out in article 17. However, it is argued that the submissions by the Government of Libya presented very forceful arguments for the implementation of positive complementarity.
The preceding submissions underscore the need for a coherent legal and institutional framework for the implementation of positive complementarity. What further emerges is that the normative identity of positive complementarity remains largely elusive.
VIII. The Rome Statute and Positive Complementarity
Does positive complementarity derive its validity from the Rome Statute? This is the question addressed in this section. It is argued that certain core legal features can be ascribed to the concept of positive complementarity and are rooted partly in the classic complementarity regime and partly in the provisions of the Rome Statute. [See Stahn, Taking Complementarity Seriously, 233.]
In this context, positive complementarity is distinct from the “classic” concept of complementarity which is the admissibility principle embedded in article 17 of the Rome Statute. In essence, it has been argued that the development of the concept of positive complementarity is largely the result of a liberal interpretation of the Statute by the ICC prosecutor. [See generally Hewett, Yale J. Int’l L. 276 (2006).]
Nothing in the Rome Statute expressly regulates positive complementarity. However, articles 17, 53, 54(1)(b) and 93(10) of the Statute are instructive in establishing to what degree positive complementarity is actually provided for in the Rome Statute. Paragraphs 4, 6 and 10 of the Preamble to the Rome Statute are equally important in providing a legal basis for positive complementarity in the Rome Statute. The essence of these provisions is to improve effective prosecution and international cooperation, with the overall objective of effectively combating impunity.
One critical assertion by Stahn which invites analysis is that “positive complementarity” is not only a policy invention, but an inherent concept in the Statute. [See Stahn, Leiden J. Int’l Law 311 (2010).] This argument effectively challenges the view that “positive” complementarity is based exclusively on the desire to ensure the empowerment of domestic jurisdiction. [The Prosecutor v. Said Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi, ICC-01/11-01/11-1 (PTC I, Jun. 27, 2011).] But Stahn goes on to caution that complementarity is nonetheless under-theorized in the Rome Statute. From this argument one may infer that certain provisions in the Rome Statute specifically provide for a positive complementarity regime. [Article 17 of the Rome Statute.]
Both classic and positive complementarity ultimately derive their legitimacy from the Rome Statute. Further, the inadequate articulation and meaning of both concepts has been laid at the door of the drafters of article 17 of the Statute. [See Nouwen, Complementarity in the Line of Fire, 11. See further Burke-White, Crim. Law Forum 59 (2008).] It has been argued that classic complementarity, which flows from the Rome Statute, is grounded on a vertical model defining the relationship between the ICC and national courts. The argument further maintains that human behaviour is controlled by a well-managed system which invokes checks and balances to address shortcomings in the jurisdiction of national courts. [See El Zeidy, Mich. J. Int. Law 869 (2002).]
These propositions introduce arguments as to the hierarchical assumptions regarding a “vertical” relationship which implies that superior jurisdiction is conferred upon the ICC to oversee the inferior jurisdiction enjoyed by national courts. [See Perrin, Sri Lanka JIL 301 (2006).] This assumption is arguably consistent with the Rome Statute model. [Articles 17 and 53 of the Rome Statute.] It is submitted, however, that the checks-and-balances argument also lacks objectivity and is in fact equally subjective in that empirical justification is largely wanting. To this extent the “vertical features” argument is unconvincing. [See arguments in Stahn, J. Int’l Crim. Just. 695 (2005).]
It is only in certain instances that the Rome Statute empowers the prosecutor of the ICC to carry out certain actions that would be regarded as constituting positive complementarity. [See Danner, Am. J. Int’l L. 510, 543 (2002).]
Stahn argues that the critical element in the international system of justice grounded on the Rome Statute is the notion of “shared responsibility”. [Danner, Am. J. Int’l L. 510, 543 (2002).] Stahn argues that although the concept of shared responsibility was not expressly addressed by the drafters on the Statute, it is nonetheless reflected in different provisions in the Statute. [Danner, Am. J. Int’l L. 510, 543 (2002).]
Nouwen, who appears to advocate the use of the “big idea”, nonetheless analyses the Rome Statute in detail with regard to positive complementarity. [See Holmes, The Principle of Complementarity 41, 45. See also Nouwen, Complementarity in the Line of Fire 11.] She argues that the Statute explicitly provides the ICC prosecutor with powers only in some identified aspects of positive complementarity. [See Nouwen, Complementarity in the Line of Fire 98.]
Under article 15(2) of the Statute the OTP is empowered to seek additional information from a state when considering whether to open up investigations with a view of alerting a state of the looming prosecutions. [See Rodman, Leiden J. Int’l Law 96 (2009).] These actions by the OTP are understood to generate the “fear” or awareness in the state concerned that the OTP is determined to proceed, and arguably would serve as a catalyst for domestic investigation and prosecution in a bid to avoid intervention by the ICC. This could be termed a sovereignty-protectionist argument. [See Damaska, JILFA 19, 32 (2009).] It is, however, debatable whether such actions, in the ordinary course of events, would naturally lead to national action in terms of expedited investigations or prosecution. The argument must be examined in the light of article 18 of the Rome Statute which gives primacy to national courts as regards domestic investigations and prosecutions.
It is argued that the Rome Statute defines the interaction between the ICC and states through the mechanism of duties—as opposed to the rights and privileges in primacy of jurisdiction. [Stahn, Crim. Law Forum 87 (2008).] Stahn argues that neither the ICC nor the states enjoy primacy of jurisdiction per se. [Stahn, Crim. Law Forum 87 (2008).] In this respect they share concurrent jurisdiction or parallel responsibility founded on a division of duties. He then argues that the resulting system of international justice is structured and based on four key elements, namely, mutual cooperation; forum allocation; vertical and horizontal dialogue; and, finally, incentive-based compliance. [It should be noted that under the Rome Statute, unlike 1994 ILC Draft Model Statute, admissibility is no longer a discretionary principle, but a mandatory legal framework which determines the allocation of competencies and dispute settlement mechanism for establishing the proper exercise of jurisdiction by all stakeholders, including the Court, states, etc.] The normative dimension of the interaction between the state and the Court is less articulated and less developed in the context of the Rome Statute. [See generally Sedman, Prosecution of Ordinary Crimes, 259.]
The normative challenge in the above propositions is that they portray the ICC as an institution that propagates advocacy catalyzing the national criminal courts to take up their national responsibilities to investigate and prosecute. This poses serious normative difficulties for justifying positive complementarity. Normative difficulties, because, the very existence of the OTP and the ICC as a whole, is inspired by their complementary roles in pursuing investigations and prosecuting international crimes within well-defined judicial parameters under article 17 of the Statute.
To trigger such support from the Court, the state concerned must prompt the ICC by means of an express request for assistance as provided under the Statute. [See generally the discussion in Olasolo, Int. Crim. Law Rev. 121 (2005).] There is no basis in the Statute for the ICC to initiate the process of assistance. In a similar vein, it could be argued that nothing in the Statute prevents the Court from initiating assistance.
Accounts and propositions presented by some advocates of positive complementarity include much more than merely providing information and other forms of judicial assistance. The technical assistance and capacity building of the national state, in general, are all critical elements of the concept of positive complementarity but are not unequivocally covered under the Statute.
However, in the early years of the ICC the classic model proved to be rigid in that it did not afford the Court the flexibility to confront impunity by other viable means. This is seen in situations such as those that arose in Kenya, Darfur, and Colombia. However, this argument could be countered by asserting that the ICC is a creature of statute and, therefore, its operations must be confined within the mandate provided under the empowering Rome Statute.
IX. 2010 Kampala Review Conference on Stocktaking of the Rome Statute
Seven years after the Statute entered into force, the first Review Conference of the Rome Statute was finally convened from May 30, 2010 to June 11, 2010 in Kampala. The 2010 Kampala Review Conference (KRC) was engaged in a stocktaking exercise designed to assess and evaluate the successes and failures of the ICC during its first years of operation in light of the Rome Statute. [Clark, GoJIL 689 (2010).] The concept of positive complementarity, in particular, was debated [Clark, GoJIL 689 (2010).] at length before and during the plenary session of the KRC. The delegates raised an assortment of propositions and arguments around the status of positive complementarity. Complementarity was one of the four topics set for review at the KRC. South Africa and Denmark were the focal points for the review document that provided detailed discussion on positive complementarity.
The Report of the Bureau on Stocktaking emphasizes that the core mandate and function of the ICC is a judicial one and that it should not be mistaken for a development agency. [Clark, GoJIL 689 (2010).] The Report then addresses the improvement of the readiness of national states through positive complementarity. It notes that positive complementarity can take many forms. The Report states that positive complementarity refers to all the activities/actions whereby national jurisdictions are strengthened and enabled to conduct genuine national investigations and trials of crimes included in the Rome Statute without involving the International Criminal Court in capacity building, [See generally Proceedings of the Kampala Review Conference on the Rome Statute, by the Focal points (Denmark and South Africa) outlined examples of projects aimed at strengthening domestic jurisdictions to deal with article 5 crimes RC/ST/CM/INF.2 (May 30, 2010), available online] financial support and technical assistance, but instead leaving these actions and activities for States, to assist each other on a voluntary basis. [¶ 16 of the Report of the Bureau at Eighth Resumed Session.]
It further states that the actual assistance envisaged in the definition above, should be delivered through cooperative programs between states themselves, as well as through a network of international and regional organizations and civil society. [Report of the Bureau at Eighth Resumed Session, ¶ 17.]
In summary, the Report recommends steps that could be taken to advance the principle of complementarity through positive complementarity at the domestic level. The Bureau further recommended that a report on positive complementarity be compiled by the state parties and that this be presented to the ASP for further attention. Allied to the preceding point, the Bureau recommended that state parties consider further measures at national level in cooperation with the ICC—for example, other forms of assistance under the heading of positive complementarity. [Report of the Bureau at Eighth Resumed Session.] Further, apart from setting up a designated function within the Secretariat of the ASP, the Bureau and ASP should continue to engage with stakeholders in the international community on the most effective means of combating impunity at domestic level through positive complementarity.
It is instructive to note that certain states questioned the tenability of the definition of positive complementarity as presented by the Bureau on Stocktaking of the Rome Statute. Notwithstanding the apparent consensus on the use of the term positive complementarity throughout the review session, Germany and Spain interrogated the legal foundation of the concept. In effect, the normative relevance of the concept of positive complementarity was called into direct question. The perceivable facets of this concept were subjected to close scrutiny.
To highlight the apparent lack of consensus on the definition of the concept of positive complementarity, it is important to examine the positions adopted by different states. The Spanish delegation, for instance, interestingly, suggested that the set of initiatives or activities included under positive complementarity might as well be simply referred to as “technical assistance”. [See Bergsmo, Bekou & Jones, GoJIL 794 (2010), available online (last visited Jun. 20, 2022).] Similarly, the German representatives indicated, skeptically, that the term positive complementarity lacked legal basis within the context of the provisions of the Rome Statute, and that it only “served to confuse judicial capacity building with the principle of complementarity as laid down in Article 17 of the Rome Statute.” [Bergsmo, Bekou & Jones, GoJIL 794 (2010), available online (last visited Jun. 20, 2022).]
The two preceding arguments by Germany and Spain are indeed persuasive challenges to the justification of the concept of positive complementarity and reflect the depth of uncertainty surrounding the normative status of the concept.
In conclusion, significantly, the developments at the KRC witness not only renewed emphasis on positive complementarity, but also a shift in the application of the term “positive complementarity”. A significant achievement of the KRC was the adoption of a definition of positive complementarity. [See generally Review Conference of the Rome Statute Draft Resolution on Complementarity ICC-ASP/8/Res.9 Annex VII (Jun. 8, 2010).] However, one of the difficulties posed by this definition is that it is subject to broad interpretation—for example, where it refers to “all activities”. This generalization is problematic, as it complicates the precise conceptualization of the elements in the definition, with the result that definition lacks the exactitude which characterizes normative precision.
The definition of positive complementarity was adopted at the KRC without any new legal obligation being introduced or imposed. As a consequence, no legal or institutional framework was formulated in the resolution to back the definition up, nor was there any indication of doing so in the future. This created a normative gap which will have to be addressed in that it signals a normative challenge with regard to the enforceability of the concept.
Ultimately, one must ask whether the KRC in fact presented any conclusive normative justification for the concept of positive complementarity. It is argued that no such concrete conclusion was arrived at. The definition was characterized by loose ends that defy normative exactitude. The normative analysis of positive complementarity reveals that a legal framework is yet to be fully developed to allow for the establishment of an enforceable regime of positive complementarity.
Against this background, this comment undertakes an analysis of the appropriate legal and institutional framework for positive complementarity in the following section.
X. Institutional Framework for Positive Complementarity
The ASP Secretariat is currently responsible for the performance of functions and the administration of matters involving positive complementarity. There are a number of factors that, cumulatively, have had a negative impact on the effectiveness of the ASP Secretariat to coordinate and facilitate the activities associated with the implementation of positive complementarity. The limiting factors range from the legal and political, to the inherently structural. Firstly, there is clear limitation in terms of financial resources available to the Secretariat due to the limited budgetary allocation from the ASP. [The sources of funding for the ASP are restrictive,, as they emanate from the member states.] Secondly, the Secretariat lacks the financial independence required to fulfil its mandate. It must rely on the budget allocation of the ICC as approved by the ASP. [This allocation of funding is normally approved only when the ASP convenes and authorizes the expenditure.] Finally, and importantly, the Secretariat is not directly a creature of the Rome Statute but rather was established by a resolution of the ASP. [Resolution for the Establishment of the Secretariat of the Assembly of States Parties to the International Criminal Court, International Criminal Court-ASP/2/Res.3.]
XI. Conclusion
Any attempt at a definition of the concept of positive complementarity will of necessity raise normative questions. The concept of positive complementarity still attracts differing perspectives and interpretations. There is no settled definition from the exiting literature analyzed. There appears to be a multi-faceted approach to explaining what the concept of positive complementary means. In conclusion, the various works consulted fail to come up with a uniform interpretation of the concept of positive complementarity.
In light of the preceding findings and conclusions, this comment recommends that the current Permanent Secretariat of the ASP should be restructured to incorporate certain key features, including a dedicated office, to enhance focus on promoting and coordinating activities relating to positive complementarity.
List of Abbreviations
Introduction;
The question of how the International Criminal Court's (ICC) Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) should engage with national, regional, or other authorities or organizations to support accountability for those accused of grave crimes is of paramount importance. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the extent and manner in which the OTP should engage with such entities. By exploring the legal framework and considering practical implications, this essay seeks to shed light on the optimal approach that will enhance accountability for grave crimes.
Engaging with National Authorities;
The Rome Statute, with its principle of complementarity, recognizes the potential for accountability through a range of authorities, including national ones. The OTP's limited resources necessitate strategic engagement with national authorities to maximize accountability efforts. To this end, the OTP should actively collaborate with national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction, facilitating the exchange of information and evidence to support effective prosecutions. Additionally, the OTP can help in the drafting of national laws enabling the assertion of universal jurisdiction over international crimes. However, cost considerations should be borne by the respective national authorities rather than the ICC.
Maintaining Consistency and Overcoming Challenges;
Maintaining consistency in the application of the law and standards of investigations and prosecutions is crucial for effective engagement with national authorities. The OTP should develop guidelines and training programs tailored to the specific challenges faced by national authorities in prosecuting under universal jurisdiction. By offering technical assistance and sharing best practices, the OTP can help national authorities overcome obstacles and enhance their capacity to prosecute grave crimes effectively.
Security and Confidentiality Concerns;
Given the sensitive nature of information and evidence collected by the OTP, it is crucial to establish clear limits on the sharing and use of such material with national authorities. Confidentiality safeguards should be in place, protecting the integrity of investigations while ensuring the responsible dissemination of information necessary for accountability. By striking the right balance between information sharing and confidentiality, the OTP can foster trust and cooperation with national authorities.
Engaging with Regional Authorities and Organizations;
The ICC's OTP should also engage with regional authorities and organizations to strengthen accountability. Regional organizations can play a significant role in implementing the principle of complementarity and enhancing local justice systems. The OTP should explore cooperative agreements or arrangements with regional entities, such as courts, tribunals, commissions, or non-governmental organizations, to foster collaboration in pursuing accountability for grave crimes. Technical assistance should be provided as needed, aligning with the specific needs and capacities of regional organizations.
Specialized International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions;
Engagement with specialized international criminal tribunals or commissions established by international bodies, such as the United Nations, can further support accountability efforts. The OTP should establish cooperative agreements or arrangements to provide necessary support, including sharing information and evidence. However, due consideration must be given to security and confidentiality concerns, ensuring appropriate safeguards are in place to protect sensitive information.
Strengths, Weaknesses, Prospects, and Risks of Decentralized Accountability;
Decentralized accountability offers various strengths, including increased potential for accountability and the involvement of multiple authorities. It also alleviates the burden on the ICC and promotes localized justice systems. However, challenges exist, such as ensuring consistency in the application of the law and standards across different jurisdictions and the need for coordination among various entities. The prospects of decentralized accountability rely on the willingness and capacity of national and regional authorities to actively engage in the process.
Conclusion;
In conclusion, for effective accountability for grave crimes, the ICC's OTP should engage with national, regional, and other authorities or organizations. By collaborating with national authorities exercising universal jurisdiction, regional entities, and specialized international tribunals or commissions, decentralized accountability can be strengthened. The OTP should focus on maintaining consistency, overcoming challenges, addressing security and confidentiality concerns, and tailoring assistance to the specific needs of each entity. By striking the right balance, the OTP can maximize its impact and contribute to a more robust system of accountability for grave crimes.
I agree with the statement that the ICC should prioritize proactive complementarity and actively support domestic prosecutions of international crimes. This approach aligns with the original intent and framework of the ICC as stated in the Rome Statute and offers several benefits in terms of accountability, efficiency, and legitimacy.
By actively encouraging and supporting domestic prosecutions, the ICC can address the issue of case overload and capacity constraints that currently challenge its effectiveness. With numerous situations under investigation and limited resources, it is unrealistic to expect the ICC to prosecute all the cases before it, let alone the full range of serious international crimes occurring worldwide. Therefore, the ICC should leverage its influence and capacity to catalyze national prosecutions as an effective and pragmatic strategy.
One key advantage of proactive complementarity is its potential to overcome the two main obstacles faced by domestic prosecutions: lack of political will and lack of capacity. The ICC, through its cooperation and assistance mechanisms, can provide valuable support to states in overcoming these limitations. Article 93(10)(a) of the Rome Statute explicitly authorizes the ICC to cooperate with and provide assistance to a State Party conducting investigations or trials related to crimes falling within the jurisdiction of the Court. This provision underscores the ICC's role in advancing domestic efforts at accountability.
Moreover, territorial prosecutions hold significant importance as they allow justice to be served at the local level, closer to the events and victims of the crimes. By incentivizing territorial states to undertake prosecutions themselves, the ICC promotes the principle of complementarity and respects the primary jurisdiction of states to prevent and punish international crimes. The threat of ICC prosecution can serve as a powerful tool to motivate states to take action and avoid international intervention and supervision.
The ICC's track record of indictments, arrests, and prosecutions over the years has established its credibility and political capital. States are more likely to take domestic action when they witness the ICC's commitment to exercising its jurisdiction. The ICC's involvement, such as naming a country as part of an investigation or indicting specific individuals, generates international pressure and provides leverage for domestic judicial action. Examples from cases like Bosnia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Kosovo demonstrate how external pressure from the ICC led to the establishment of domestic prosecutions and contributed to accountability.
To effectively implement proactive complementarity, the ICC should prioritize domestic prosecutions over exercising its own jurisdiction. The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) should use ICC indictments as leverage for both the arrest of suspects and their transfer to the ICC or initiation of domestic prosecutions. The ICC must defer to national governments when they genuinely undertake their own prosecutions, as outlined in Articles 18 and 19 of the Rome Statute.
The ICC should also be flexible in accommodating variations in the procedures and processes of accountability in different national contexts. It may involve the establishment of semi-internationalized special tribunals or purely domestic trials based on national approaches to justice. Such flexibility is essential for the ICC and the international justice community to adapt to diverse legal systems and ensure genuine accountability.
In supporting domestic prosecutions, the ICC can offer expertise to territorial states through training sessions and the secondment of ICC personnel engaged in investigations and prosecutions. This form of support is crucial in strengthening the capacity of national judicial systems and promoting knowledge transfer. Additionally, the ICC can provide evidence to national governments, but this should be done in a manner that safeguards the integrity of the evidence and protects victims and witnesses.
While the ICC should actively support and prioritize territorial prosecutions, it must be cautious not to overstep its mandate. The ICC is not a judicial development organization, and its role is to assist and complement national jurisdictions, not replace them. Therefore, the ICC's efforts to support national prosecutions should be judicious and aligned with its expertise and mandate.
In conclusion, the ICC's capacity crisis can be addressed by adopting a strategy of proactive complementarity. By actively supporting and incentivizing territorial prosecutions, the ICC can effectively contribute to domestic accountability for international crimes. This approach aligns with the ICC's role as a complementary institution to national criminal jurisdictions, as stated in the Rome Statute.
The establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) through the Rome Statute marked a significant milestone in the global pursuit of justice for the most serious crimes of international concern. The principle of complementarity, which underscores the ICC's role as a complement to national jurisdictions, highlights the crucial responsibility of sovereign States in combating impunity and ensuring accountability. However, challenges persist in effectively investigating and prosecuting core international crimes. This argument aims to advocate for enhanced cooperation between the ICC and States in exercising universal jurisdiction, emphasizing the benefits and addressing the obstacles that such collaboration may entail.
Benefits of Cooperation:
Obstacles and Solutions:
In conclusion, Universal jurisdiction plays a vital role in ensuring accountability for core international crimes, complementing the efforts of the ICC. While challenges persist, the increasing number of universal jurisdiction investigations demonstrates the growing recognition of the importance of holding perpetrators accountable. The close cooperation between the OTP and states exercising universal jurisdiction offers mutual benefits, strengthening the collective fight against impunity and contributing to the pursuit of justice on a global scale.